Curculigo orchioides

Other Names

ArshoghniBhuimaddiBhumitilaBhuyimaddiBlack MusaleBlack MusliCurculigo brevifoliaCurculigo densaCurculigo ensifoliaCurculigo firmaCurculigo malabaricaCurculigo orchioides var. minorCurculigo paucifloraCurculigo petiolataCurculigo stansDeergaskandikaDi ziangDu maoFranquevillea majorGethyllis acaulisGolden Eye-GrassHai nan shenHeen binthalHemapushpeeHypoxis dulcisHypoxis minorHypoxis orchioidesKali MusaliKali musali (Marathi)Kali MusliKali Musli (Hindi)KalirnusaliKalo MusaliKanchanapushpikaKharjuriKrishna MusliKrishnamusaliMahavrukshaMasalkamdoMusale noirMusaliMusali KandMusali KandaMusali safedMusali SiyahMusikaparniMusli SiyahMuslikandMuslisiahNalla-tudiNela mundNela tenguNela-tati-gaddeNelappanaNelatadiNelataleNelatigadeNeltalNilapanaiNilappanaNilappanaiNilappanai (Siddha)NilappanaikkilanguOrchid Palm GrassPo lu men shenRhizoma CurculiginisSam CauSankariShan dang shenSyah MusaliSyahmusaliTailmuliTalamoolikaTalamulaTalamuliTalamuli (Bengali)TalamulikaTalapartriTalapatriTalmaluTalmuliTalmuli (Assamese)TalpatrikaTalusaThaala moolikeTien MaoVarahiWeevil-WortXian MaoXian mao shenXianmaoYa guo zi

Synopsis

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.: A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Description

Nomenclature and Taxonomy

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (commonly known as Kali musli) is a widely used tonic medicinal plant in Asian traditional systems, valued for restoring vitality and supporting reproductive and musculoskeletal health. It belongs to the family Hypoxidaceae, within the order Asparagales of the kingdom Plantae.

The plant bears a substantial number of common and vernacular names across languages and cultures. It is commonly called "Kali musli" in India and "Xian mao" in China. In Vietnam, it is known as "Sam Cau" or "Tien Mao." Sanskrit synonyms include Talamuli, Talaparni, and Bhumitala; Hindi names include Kalimusli and Siyah-musli; in Nepali it is known as Musali or Kalo Musali. An ISO standard for the rhizome used in international trade designates it under the family Amaryllidaceae, a classification used in some modern treatments. ISO document ISO/DIS 25657 specifies quality and safety requirements for Curculigo orchioides rhizome, derived from the root of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Fam. Amaryllidaceae), applicable to Chinese Materia Medica and decoction pieces sold in international trade.

Within the genus Curculigo, C. orchioides, C. capitulata, C. pilosa, C. recurvata, C. breviscapa, C. latifolia, and C. crassifolia are often used as traditional medicines, but only C. orchioides, C. capitulata, and C. pilosa have been thoroughly recorded and described in the scientific literature. Of the 28 known Curculigo species, C. orchioides is the most exploited medicinal herb and is already listed as an endangered species because of its wide range of therapeutic potential compared to other species.

Morphology and Geographic Distribution

Curculigo orchioides is a stemless evergreen perennial herb producing a cluster of leaves from the roots and spreading to form a clump. The plant grows 10–35 cm tall and bears bright yellow flowers; it prefers subtropical Himalayan habitats and is harvested from July through October. Leaves are basal, sessile or narrowed into short or long petioles, linear to lanceolate, membranous, and base-sheathing.

The species is native and widely distributed in Asian countries such as India, Nepal, Pakistan, South China, Laos, Vietnam, Myanmar, and the Philippines. It is also distributed in Sri Lanka, Japan, Malaysia, and Australia.

Plant Part Used and Common Preparations

The plant parts are processed into powders, decoctions, or alcohol-based extracts for medicinal use. In traditional Chinese medicine, the dried rhizome, containing curculigoside, is used as a tonic. The rhizome can be cooked with meat for impotence and tinnitus, soaked in Chinese wine for aging enuresis, or ground into a fine powder to take with Chinese wine for uterine bleeding. Modern supplement forms include standardized rhizome extracts, capsules, and tablets.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ayurveda (India)

References to Curculigo orchioides date back to ancient Sanskrit texts including the Sahasrayogam (15th century) and various commentaries on the Charaka Samhita. Practitioners of classical Ayurveda valued it as a "Medhya Rasayana" promoting mental clarity, and as a "Vajikaran Rasayana" for sexual health. In India, Curculigo orchioides possesses a special position in the Ayurvedic medical system. In Hinduism, Curculigo orchioides, known as Talamula, is associated with the treatment of Ashmari (urinary calculi), reflecting its significance in traditional healing practices.

Curculigo orchioides is used in Ayurveda and Unani herbal medicines; its rhizomes are considered sweet, cooling, aphrodisiac-virilogenic, diuretic, and tonic, and are utilized in hemorrhoids, skin diseases, leucorrhoea, bronchitis, pruritis, and jaundice. Based on its aphrodisiac properties, Curculigo orchioides preparations are widely used in Ayurveda for the treatment of erectile dysfunction, low libido, low sperm count, and low sperm motility.

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)

The use of Curculigo orchioides in China can be dated back to the first year of the Kaiyuan reign (AD 713), when a Brahman monk from the Western region presented this plant to the Emperor of the Tang Dynasty as a tribute. It is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat impotence, limb limpness, arthritis of the lumbar and knee joints, and watery diarrhea. The rhizome of this plant is also considered to have attributes beneficial to the kidney and liver channels.

Compound preparations in TCM include decoctions of Curculigo orchioides and Epimedium brevicornum made with mutton for the treatment of low sexual desire, or a decoction with Foeniculum vulgare, Juglans regia, and porcine kidneys to benefit kidney yang deficiency and lumbodynia. Curculigo orchioides is also used for the treatment of carbuncle abscesses, traumatic injuries, and infected burns in Chinese folk medicine.

Unani and Siddha Medicine

In Unani medicine, another Indian traditional system, the leaves have been reported to have anticancer properties, and herbal vendors use Curculigo orchioides to treat urogenital disorders such as dysuria, hematuria, syphilis, and gonorrhea. Its use spread to Tibb Unani medicine, where it was embraced for urinary disorders and as a galactagogue for nursing mothers. In the Siddha medicine system of southern India, the root tuber is employed for treating diabetes, pains, and leucoderma.

Cross-Cultural Summary of Traditional Indications

Curculigo orchioides is used for the treatment of impotence, limb limpness, arthritis of the lumbar and knee joints, and watery diarrhea in traditional Chinese medicine, and as a potent immunomodulator and aphrodisiac in the Ayurvedic medical system.
C. orchioides is reported to have the effects of dissipating carbuncle, strengthening muscles and bones, dispelling cold and dampness, tonifying kidney yang, benefiting essence and blood, immunoregulation, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective activities.
Rhizome juices are mixed with garlic juice to prepare eye drops; they are also reported to have anti-infective and healing effects and are used to treat cuts and wounds.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Overall Phytochemical Profile

Intensive phytochemical investigations have revealed a chemically rich profile, with 173 compounds identified to date, broadly grouped into phenolics (1–86), triterpenoids and steroids (87–126), nitrogenous compounds (127–140), and other constituents (141–173). Previous studies have revealed that phenols and phenolic glucosides, norlignans, and terpenoids are the main constituents in Curculigo species.

C. orchioides contains several classes of chemicals, including saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, phytosterols, steroids, free reducing sugars, starch, proteins, resins, tannins, mucilage, fats, and inorganic compounds.

Principal Bioactive Compounds

Curculigoside (and Structural Analogues)

Curculigoside is a phenolic glycoside isolated from Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. The content of curculigoside is used as an indicator to evaluate the quality of rhizome of Curculigo orchioides. Curculigoside (CUR) is a phenolic glycoside found abundantly in Curculigo orchioides Gaertn., demonstrated to possess antioxidant and antiosteoporotic properties. Its molecular formula is C₂₂H₂₆O₁₁.

Six phenolic compounds have been isolated from Curculigo orchioides, including 2,6-dimethoxy benzoic acid, curculigoside A, curculigoside B, curculigine A, curculigine D, and 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethoxy-7,9′:7′,9-diepoxylignan-4,4′-di-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, and have been evaluated for antiosteoporotic activity.

Orcinol Glucoside (Orcinol-β-D-glucoside)

Orcinol-β-D-glucoside, also known as orcinol glucoside, is a major phenolic glucoside compound in the rhizome of Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. This compound has many medicinal properties, including antioxidant, immunomodulatory, antiosteoporosis, stress relief, and antidepressant effects. Curculigoside and orcinol glucoside are the two main compounds in C. orchioides.

Saponins, Norlignans, Polysaccharides, and Other Classes

Major glycosides identified from C. orchioides include syringic acid glucopyranoside; curculigosaponins E, F, G, H, I, and J; curculigoside B; curculigines P and Q; curculigine B and C; orcinosides I–J; 2-beta-D-glucopyranosyloxy-5-hydroxybenzyl-2′-methoxy-6′-hydroxybenzoate; 2,6-dimethoxyl benzoic acid; and orcinol-β-D-glucoside. Novel chlorophenolic glucosides, curculigine, phenolic glycosides, orcinosides, and polysaccharides have also been isolated from Curculigo species.

From the rhizomes of C. orchioides, two polysaccharides designated COP90-1 and COP70-3 have been isolated, and both displayed anti-osteoporosis activities in vitro.

4. Established Mechanisms of Action

Antioxidant Mechanisms

Curculigoside (CCG) has been shown to up-regulate VEGF expression, reverse iron-overload via GPX4, relieve oxidative stress via the Akt-FoxO1 axis, and reduce inflammation via NF-κB signaling transduction to favor bone remodeling in vivo and in vitro. Curculigoside can reactivate the expression of Nrf-2 and HO-1, which are suppressed during hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Osteogenic / Anti-Osteoporotic Mechanisms

Previous studies showed that curculigoside increased the proliferation and differentiation of osteoblasts by stimulating alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, while inhibiting osteoclast bone resorption and osteoclast formation. In vivo, CCG promoted transcriptional co-activator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) expression to reverse age-related bone loss and marrow adiposity. In vitro, proper concentrations of CCG upregulated TAZ expression to increase osteogenesis and decrease adipogenesis of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs).

Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms

Curculigo orchioides has high anti-inflammatory activity; phytochemicals such as triterpenoids, sapogenin, and saponin glycosides are the main constituents contributing toward anti-inflammatory properties. Network pharmacological analysis identified curculigoside, orcinol glucoside, and orcin as main active ingredients acting on targets including MMP9, JUN, and PTGS2. Molecular docking revealed effective binding potential of curculigoside and orcinol glucoside with these targets.

Neuroprotective Mechanisms

Studies have focused on the neuroprotective effects of curculigoside; they demonstrated that this compound could protect against N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-induced neuronal excitotoxicity, attenuate cerebral ischemia injury, and promote learning and memory in aged rats. Curculigoside improved depression-like behavior in mice, significantly up-regulating levels of BDNF protein and the concentrations of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin in the hippocampus of depressive animals.

Antidepressant Mechanisms

Orcinol glucoside (OG) improved depressive behavior in CUMS (chronic unpredictable mild stress) rats by down-regulating the over-activity of the HPA axis and increasing the expression of BDNF and phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in the hippocampus. In another study, OG effectively alleviated anxiety-like behaviors in mice in three different tests while having no sedative effects on the animals.

Immunomodulatory Mechanisms

The ethanolic extract of Curculigo orchioides demonstrated adaptive effects, such as enhancing tolerance to high temperature and hypoxia. It also showed sedative, anticonvulsant, and androgen-like effects. The methanol extract, when studied on humoral and cell-mediated immunity in normal and cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressed mice, produced an increase in humoral antibody titer, delayed-type hypersensitivity, and levels of white blood cells in a dose-dependent manner.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

Important limitation note: The overwhelming majority of pharmacological evidence for Curculigo orchioides is preclinical — derived from in vitro cell studies, rodent models, and network pharmacology analyses. Robust randomized controlled clinical trials in humans are largely absent. Evidence strength is characterized below for each area.

5.1 Bone Health and Osteoporosis

Curculigoside (CCG) is the major bioactive component of Curculigo orchioides, which has been used as anti-osteoporosis therapy for elder patients since antiquity. Preclinical studies constitute the bulk of evidence in this area.

Cao et al. (2008) discovered that oral administration of CCG prevented bone loss in the tibia of ovariectomized rats. In vivo studies showed that bone mineral density (BMD) and microarchitectural parameters were improved after a 3-month administration of CCG in an iron-overload mouse model. Curculigoside is a natural product that can modulate cellular differentiation and function in osteogenic cells and exert significant osteoprotective effects; it showed significant positive effects on the treatment of osteoporosis animal models. Specific mechanisms include inhibition of inflammatory responses, antagonism of oxidative stress, and modulation of various signaling pathways.

Evidence strength: Promising but limited to animal and cell-based models. No controlled clinical trials in humans have been published confirming these effects on bone density or fracture risk.

5.2 Male Reproductive Function and Sexual Behavior

The rhizomes of Curculigo orchioides have been traditionally used as an aphrodisiac; the ethanolic extract of rhizomes was evaluated for its effect on sexual behavior in rats. Administration of 100 mg/kg of extract significantly changed sexual behavior, as assessed by parameters such as penile erection, mating performance, mount frequency, and mount latency. A pronounced anabolic and spermatogenic effect was evidenced by weight gains of reproductive organs.

Curculigo orchioides is considered as a sexual tonic in Ayurvedic medicine with potent antioxidant and adaptogenic properties. The aqueous extract was evaluated for its effectiveness against streptozotocin-induced hyperglycemic stress and subsequent sexual dysfunction due to hyperglycemia in male rats, using six groups of eight male rats each for 28 days. The deleterious effect of sustained hyperglycemia was prominently ameliorated in animals treated with aqueous extract of C. orchioides. Hyperglycemia-associated reduction in serum testosterone levels, sperm count, seminal fructose content, and testosterone was mitigated. Antioxidant and anabolic activities of the extract were identified as major contributing factors.

Pharmacological studies have reported efficacy in improving spermatogenesis, enhancing testosterone levels, and protecting against oxidative stress-induced infertility.

Evidence strength: All available evidence is from animal studies. No human clinical trials have evaluated sexual function, testosterone, or spermatogenesis outcomes. Evidence is preliminary and cannot be extrapolated directly to humans.

5.3 Immunomodulation

The medicinal plants of the genus Curculigo have shown a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities, including adaptive, immunostimulatory, mast cell stabilization, antihistaminic, and antiasthmatic activity. Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. is known for "adaptogen" and "aphrodisiac" activity and has been proved for antiasthmatic and estrogenic activity.

Evidence strength: Immunostimulatory effects have been demonstrated in rodent models; human data are unavailable.

5.4 Neuroprotection, Cognition, and Depression

The extract of C. orchioides rhizome exhibited significant inhibitory effects on acetylcholinesterase in vitro, suggesting potential for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Both bio-autograph and spectrophotometric methods confirmed inhibitory activity of methanol extracts. Curculigoside in C. orchioides can effectively improve behavior in Alzheimer's rats, reduce the damage of hippocampal neurons, and inhibit the apoptosis of hippocampal neurons.

One study focused on the antidepressant potential of orcinol glucoside (OG) and its possible mechanisms of action, establishing a depressed rat model using 3 consecutive weeks of chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS). Ge et al. (2014) described that orcinol glucoside improved the depressive behavior of CUMS rats by down-regulating the over-activity of the HPA axis and increasing the expression of BDNF and phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in the hippocampus.

In vitro, curculigoside A showed the potential for neurovascular repair therapy for stroke and brain injury by modulating angiogenesis in cerebral endothelial cells via VCAM-1/Egr-3/CREB/VEGF signaling.

Evidence strength: All evidence is preclinical. In vitro and rodent studies show mechanistic plausibility, but no human trials have been conducted for neurodegenerative diseases or depression.

5.5 Anti-Inflammatory and Antiarthritic Effects

In vivo experiments demonstrated that C. orchioides alleviated rheumatoid arthritis (RA) symptoms and inhibited the expression of MMP9, JUN, and PTGS2 proteins, laying an experimental foundation for the potential development and application of C. orchioides as an anti-RA drug.

Evidence strength: Preclinical only; requires clinical validation.

5.6 Antidiabetic Effects

A study aimed to perform GC-MS profiling of bioactive phytochemicals and evaluate the antioxidant and anti-diabetic properties of the ethanolic root extract of C. orchioides (ERCO) through an integrative approach combining in vitro, in vivo, and in silico methods. Pharmacological effects of Curculigo species include anti-diabetes, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-osteoporosis, and antioxidation activities.

Evidence strength: Preclinical; in vitro and animal model data only. No human antidiabetic trials identified.

5.7 Hepatoprotection

Curculigoside can effectively mitigate hepatic ischemia/reperfusion-induced oxidative stress. This activity has been confirmed through evidence of decreased serum levels of aminotransferases, hepatocellular necrosis, apoptosis, oxidative stress markers, infiltration of inflammatory cells, and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines.

Evidence strength: In vitro and animal studies only.

5.8 Antiasthmatic / Mast Cell Stabilization

Documented pharmacological activities of Curculigo species include mast cell stabilization and antihistaminic and antiasthmatic activity.

Evidence strength: Noted in reviews but mechanism and clinical applicability remain poorly characterized; primarily preclinical.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Curculigo orchioides

Based on the available preclinical literature, Curculigo orchioides has been associated with the following body systems:

Skeletal system: Curculigo orchioides has been used as an anti-osteoporosis herb in many Asian countries.
Reproductive / endocrine system: The scientific evidence indicates aphrodisiac, spermatogenic, and estrogenic activities.
Immune system: Bioactive compounds and extracts of Curculigo plants exhibited immunostimulatory activity.
Nervous system: Neuroprotective, antidepressant, and antistress activity have been documented in preclinical settings.
Hepatic system: Hepatoprotective activity has been reported in the preclinical literature.
Metabolic / glycemic: Antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic activities have been noted.
Musculoskeletal system: Curculigo orchioides is valued for supporting musculoskeletal health.
Renal / urinary system: Emerging renal/uroprotective effects have been reported.

7. Dosage Forms and Doses Reported in the Scientific Literature

No standardized, globally approved dosing protocol for Curculigo orchioides exists; the following represent doses used in published studies only.

An ethanolic extract of rhizomes evaluated in rats for sexual behavior was administered at 100 mg/kg, producing significant changes in penile erection, mating performance, mount frequency, and mount latency.
In a study evaluating the aqueous extract against hyperglycemia-induced sexual dysfunction in male rats, six groups of eight rats were used for a 28-day treatment period.
In vivo studies of curculigoside on iron-overload bone loss utilized a 3-month administration period, after which BMD and microarchitectural parameters improved.
The study of orcinol glucoside (OG) for antidepressant effects established a depressed rat model using 3 consecutive weeks of chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS).
In traditional Chinese medicine, the dried rhizome containing curculigoside is used as a tonic; no single standardized dose is described.

All dose data above are from animal experiments and have not been validated for human use through clinical trials.

8. Safety Considerations

Conservation Status

Curculigo orchioides is already listed as an endangered species because of its wide-ranging therapeutic use compared to other Curculigo species. Despite its wide traditional usage, issues such as overharvesting, poor propagation, and adulteration pose threats to its availability and therapeutic authenticity. Factors responsible for the depletion of natural populations include poor seed setting and regeneration, low regeneration potential through sexual reproduction, limited dispersal range of seeds and propagules.

Toxicological Findings

Toxicological testing indicated that Curculigo orchioides at the dose of 120 g/kg, after administration to rats for 180 days, may cause injury to the liver and kidney. The mechanism of toxic action remains to be elucidated; the particular constituent responsible for toxicity has not been isolated and identified, and the target tissue and mechanism of toxic ingredients deserve further investigation.

In a Drosophila melanogaster-based toxicity study of the aqueous leaf extract, exposure during development resulted in reduced emergence and wing malformations in emerged flies. A significant reduction in reproductive performance and the organism's lifespan was also observed when adult flies were exposed to the leaf extract. This study raises concerns about the practice of indiscriminate therapeutic use of plant extracts.

Preclinical safety data generally indicate good short-term tolerability for root/rhizome extracts, while emphasizing preparation-dependent toxicity signals and the need for standardized, mechanism-driven, and translational research.

Standardization and Quality Concerns

The content of curculigoside is used as an indicator to evaluate the quality of the rhizome of Curculigo orchioides. The ISO has initiated a standardization document (ISO/DIS 25657) for the rhizome in international trade. More reference substances should be prepared and sophisticated analytical technologies developed to comprehensively assess the quality of Curculigo herbs.

Absence of Human Safety Data

The mechanism of action of these plants' constituents should be further elucidated; in particular, the constituent responsible for toxicity requires further identification. No controlled human safety or toxicology studies have been published. The high-dose toxicity signal seen in chronic rodent studies (hepatorenal injury at 120 g/kg for 180 days) is at an extreme dose not comparable to typical supplemental use, but the toxic constituent and dose-response relationship in humans have not been characterized.

9. Current Research Gaps and Future Directions

Since 2013, pharmacological studies of the genus Curculigo have been classified into 12 areas: anti-diabetic activity, anti-osteoporosis, antioxidant, neuroprotective effect, antitumor, antibacterial, anti-inflammation and anti-arthritis, anti-diarrhea and anti-nociception, effect on perimenopausal syndrome, male reproductive improvement, cardioprotection, and other activities. However, while the medicinal plants of genus Curculigo have emerged as a good source of traditional medicines, and some uses have been validated by pharmacological investigation, the field lacks randomized controlled human clinical trials for virtually every proposed indication. Sustainable cultivation, standardization of extracts, and clinical validation are essential to establish safety and efficacy.

Orcinol glucoside, mainly found in the rhizome of Curculigo orchioides, is noted for its antidepressant effects. Research has established biosynthetic pathways using transcriptome analysis, structure-based virtual screening, and enzyme activity assays, and metabolic engineering has achieved production yields 6,400-fold higher than plant extraction, suggesting alternative sourcing strategies may reduce pressure on wild populations.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Curculigo orchioides may help support.

Libido & Sexual Vitality (Men's)Traditional
Curculigo orchioides (kali musli) is an Ayurvedic herb used as a vajikarana (aphrodisiac) in traditional Indian medicine to enhance male sexual function and libido. Animal studies confirm aphrodisiac activity. Human clinical data are limited but pharmacopoeial recognition and consistent animal study results support traditional use.

Body Systems

Body systems that Curculigo orchioides may help support.

No body systems available.