Chlorella

Chlorella

1. Identity

Taxonomic and Botanical Classification

Chlorella vulgaris is a species of green microalga in the division Chlorophyta. This unicellular alga was discovered in 1890 by Martinus Willem Beijerinck as the first microalga with a well-defined nucleus, and it is the type species of the genus Chlorella. The name "chlorella" was formed by combining the Greek word chloros (meaning green) and the Latin word ella (meaning small). The two species most widely used commercially as dietary supplements are Chlorella vulgaris and Chlorella pyrenoidosa (also referred to in some literature as Auxenochlorella pyrenoidosa). The Chlorella species has been divided since 2004 into three principal varieties: Chlorella vulgaris, Chlorella lobophora, and Chlorella sorokiniana.

Physical Characteristics and Habitat

Chlorella is a near-spherical, single-celled green alga that is 3 to 8 μm in diameter and mainly lives in freshwater lakes and rivers, where it undergoes photosynthesis for growth. It is found in freshwater and terrestrial habitats and has a cosmopolitan distribution. A notable biological feature is its reproductive capacity: ordinary animal and plant cells multiply through 2 divisions, but Chlorella repeats cell division at an extraordinary speed of 4 divisions in 20 hours.

Common Forms and Preparations

Chlorella is commercialized as powders, capsules, and tablets, particularly in Asian and European markets where it is widely used in functional and fortified products. In addition to whole-cell products, a specialized extract known as Chlorella Growth Factor (CGF) is produced commercially. Hot water extracts from chlorella are known as chlorella growth factor (CGF) and are rich in amino acids, peptides, vitamins, minerals, and nucleic acids. Only 4–5 grams of CGF can be extracted from 100 grams of chlorella. Because Chlorella is difficult to digest in its natural state — its cell wall being made of cellulose — it must be processed before consumption. Commercial cell-wall disruption methods (mechanical milling, spray-drying, and pressure processing) are used to improve digestibility and nutrient bioavailability.

Chlorella vulgaris is currently the most cultivated species because it is most suitable for seaweed farms. Historically, chlorella was first produced and consumed in Asia, mainly in Japan, and subsequently the island of Formosa (present-day Taiwan) became a leading global producer. The world annual production of the various species of Chlorella was 2,000 tonnes (dry weight) in 2009, with the main producers being Germany, Japan, and Taiwan.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Discovery and Early Scientific Interest

Chlorella was first discovered in 1890 by Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck, who found that it was rich in chlorophyll and had the potential of being used as a food. It was not until the mid-twentieth century that chlorella was seriously considered as a nutrient for human consumption. During the early 1900s, scientists were interested in chlorella as a possible answer to anticipated global food shortages. In the aftermath of World War II, the search for sustainable and high-protein food sources led researchers to consider it as a food supplement, with research into this potential supported by the Rockefeller Foundation and other government agencies in the 1940s and 1950s.

Asia: Japan and Taiwan

In the 1940s, chlorella became popular in Japan as a dietary supplement, especially after World War II, when food shortages were being addressed. In Japan, chlorella is considered a food of national health interest, and in 1957 the Institute for Chlorella Research was established there. Japan is currently the largest consumer of Chlorella, both for nutritional and therapeutic purposes, and it is used as a dietary supplement or protein-rich food additive in several countries worldwide.

In Japan, interest in Chlorella has focused largely on its detoxifying properties and its ability to neutralize or remove poisonous substances from the body. Japanese practitioners historically used chlorella in support of gastric and duodenal health, and it became a common supplement for immune support against infections. Chlorella species and extracts have been reported in traditional and early clinical settings to reduce inflammation and cholesterol, prevent stress-induced ulcers, enhance resistance to infection, exert antineoplastic activity, decrease dioxins in breast milk, and reduce the risk of anemia, proteinuria, and edema in pregnant women.

Since the growing world food problem of the 1940s was ultimately solved by better crop efficiency and other advances in traditional agriculture, Chlorella did not see the sustained public and scientific interest that it had attracted in the 1940s. Nevertheless, it retained a significant commercial presence in East Asia as a health food, and it has been marketed globally as a dietary supplement since the late twentieth century.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Macronutrients and Proteins

On a dry-weight basis, Chlorella vulgaris has a remarkable nutritional profile, containing up to 60% protein with a balanced amino-acid composition, along with dietary fiber, vitamins (B, E, and D), chlorophyll, carotenoids such as lutein and zeaxanthin, and essential minerals including iron, zinc, and magnesium. The nine essential amino acids — histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine — are present, as they must be obtained through diet.

Vitamins and Minerals

Chlorella products contain nutrients including vitamins D and B12 that are absent in plant-derived food sources, and Chlorella contains larger amounts of folate and iron than other plant-derived foods. The vitamin content includes provitamin A, vitamins B1, B2, B6, niacin, B12, biotin, vitamin C, vitamin K, pantothenic acid, folic acid, choline, lipoic acid, inositol, and para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA). Among the minerals present, the most notable are phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, calcium, manganese, copper, zinc, and cobalt.

Lipids and Fatty Acids

The chemical composition of Chlorella vulgaris indicates a high nutritional value, encompassing a wide range of essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, and proteins, as well as n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, provitamins, and phenolic compounds. The presence of carotenoids, chlorophylls, and amino acids establishes C. vulgaris as a good source of nutrition, supported by the presence of omega-6, -7, -9, and -13 fatty acids.

Pigments: Chlorophyll and Carotenoids

Chlorella has the highest content of chlorophyll of any known plant. LC-MS/MS analysis of C. vulgaris has revealed carotenoid constituents comprising violaxanthin, neoxanthin, lutein, β-carotene, vulgaxanthin I, astaxanthin, and antheraxanthin, along with other pigments such as the chlorophylls. The potential health benefits of Chlorella have been attributed to the effects of specific ingredients including minerals, dietary fiber, and a wide range of antioxidants and chlorophylls.

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides, as major active ingredients of Chlorella, have attracted increasing attention due to their various health-promotion activities, including immunomodulation, antioxidation, anti-hyperlipidemia, antitumor, neuroprotection, and anti-asthmatic effects. The polysaccharides of Chlorella pyrenoidosa have been found to be composed of galactose, glucose, mannose, xylose, arabinose, and rhamnose.

Chlorella Growth Factor (CGF)

The hot water extracts from chlorella known as CGF are rich in amino acids, peptides, vitamins, minerals, and nucleic acids. CGF is produced specifically from the nucleus of the alga. Chlorella Growth Factor (CGF) is derived from the hot water extract of chlorella, containing a mixture of water-soluble ingredients; only 4–5 grams of CGF can be extracted from 100 grams of chlorella. CGF is associated with growth promotion and healing properties and contains nucleic acids, peptides, water-soluble vitamins, and minerals.

Sporopollenin

A compound called sporopollenin, present notably in Chlorella pyrenoidosa, has been proposed to act in a detoxifying manner. The cell wall of Chlorella contains sporopollenin — a resistant substance found in many plants — which, once consumed, is proposed to bind to toxins and facilitate their elimination through urine and feces. This mechanism remains primarily described in laboratory and animal contexts, and direct clinical evidence for sporopollenin-mediated detoxification in humans is limited.

Principal Proposed Mechanisms of Action

• Antioxidant activity: Various chlorella-derived compounds including ascorbic acid, glutathione, tocopherols, carotenoids, and chlorophyll demonstrate antioxidant properties. Antioxidant activity is considered to play an important role in the protective effects of Chlorella.
• Immunomodulation: Chlorella supplementation has been reported to exhibit immunomodulatory activity in mammals including humans. The proposed mechanisms involve upregulation of cytokines such as interferon-γ and interleukins, and enhanced natural killer (NK) cell activity.
• Lipid modulation: A proposed mechanism for cholesterol-lowering effects involves bile acid binding by Chlorella fiber, similar to the mechanism of dietary soluble fiber.
• Heavy metal and toxin binding: The key mechanisms involved in heavy metal uptake include biosorption, bioaccumulation, intracellular sequestration, and biotransformation; passive biosorption on the cell surface is accomplished through the interaction of functional groups such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, sulfate, and amine via ion exchange and complexation.
• Anti-inflammatory activity: Beyond its nutritional value, C. vulgaris demonstrates antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anticancer, and cardiometabolic effects relevant to human health.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Cardiovascular Risk Factors: Lipids and Blood Pressure

Meta-analysis on the effects of Chlorella supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors has suggested that it improves total cholesterol levels, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and fasting blood glucose levels, but not triglycerides and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels.

A 2017 meta-analysis published in Clinical Nutrition (Fallah et al.) synthesized results from 19 RCTs involving 797 subjects. Meta-analysis on these 19 RCTs indicated that Chlorella administration significantly decreased total cholesterol (TC: −9.09 mg/dl, 95% CI: −12.91 to −5.26, P < 0.001), LDL-C (−8.32 mg/dl, 95% CI: −12.22 to −4.42, P < 0.001), systolic blood pressure (SBP: −4.51 mmHg, 95% CI: −6.53 to −2.48, P < 0.001), diastolic blood pressure (DBP: −1.64 mmHg, 95% CI: −3.28 to −0.01, P = 0.049), and fasting blood glucose (FBG: −4.23 mg/dl, 95% CI: −8.29 to −0.17, P = 0.041), whereas changes in triglycerides, HDL-C, and BMI were not statistically significant.

A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study assessed daily chlorella supplementation on serum lipids in mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects. The trial was performed to test whether a daily intake of Chlorella may improve serum lipid profile through enhancement of serum carotenoid concentrations in mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects; eligible subjects (n = 63) were randomized to Chlorella (5 g/day) or placebo for a 4-week intervention period following a 2-week lead-in. Improvement of serum lipids was supported by significant reductions of very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (Chlorella −11%; placebo 11.8%; P = 0.006), apolipoprotein B (Chlorella −1.5%; placebo 1.7%; P = 0.044), and non-HDL cholesterol, suggesting an inhibitory effect of Chlorella on the intestinal absorption of dietary and endogenous lipids. Daily consumption of Chlorella supplements provided the potential for health benefits by reducing serum lipid risk factors, mainly triglycerides and total cholesterol, in mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects, and the effect appeared to be related to carotenoid consumption.

A 2025 GRADE-assessed systematic review and meta-analysis (Shiri et al., ScienceDirect) conducted systematic searches through January 2025. GRADE analysis of the evidence showed low-quality evidence for hs-CRP and fasting blood glucose, high-quality evidence for total cholesterol, LDL-C, and BMI, and moderate-quality evidence for other parameters. Studies suggest that chlorella may improve lipid profiles due to its nutrient composition; however, RCT findings are inconsistent regarding chlorella's effects on blood lipids, with some reporting no significant impact. Overall, evidence for a modest lipid-lowering effect is moderately strong based on pooled RCT data, but individual trial results are inconsistent, sample sizes remain small, and the magnitude of effect is modest.

4.2 Liver Health and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)

A comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs assessed Chlorella vulgaris supplementation and its effects on liver function biomarkers. Pooling 7 RCTs together showed that C. vulgaris supplementation led to a significant reduction of serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels.

A double-blind randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial investigated the effect of Chlorella vulgaris supplementation on liver enzymes, serum glucose, and lipid profile in NAFLD patients. The trial was conducted on 60 NAFLD patients from specialized clinics of Tabriz University of Medical Sciences; subjects were randomly allocated to an intervention group receiving 400 mg/day vitamin E plus four 300 mg tablets of Chlorella vulgaris (total 1,200 mg/day) or a placebo group receiving 400 mg/day vitamin E and four placebo tablets per day for 8 weeks. C. vulgaris appeared to improve fasting blood sugar and lipid profile and was considered as a potentially effective complementary treatment in NAFLD.

A double-blind randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial conducted on 70 NAFLD patients found that microalgae Chlorella vulgaris supplementation could improve liver function through decreasing weight, liver enzymes, and hs-CRP concentrations after 8 weeks. The evidence for Chlorella in NAFLD is preliminary — derived from small, short-term trials — and further large-scale studies are needed to confirm these findings.

4.3 Immune Function

To evaluate the effect of Chlorella supplementation on natural killer cell activity and early inflammatory response in humans, a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial was conducted in healthy adults ingesting C. vulgaris at 5 g/day or placebo. After eight weeks of supplementation, serum interferon-γ and interleukin-1β levels were significantly elevated and interleukin-12 tended to increase in the Chlorella group. Natural killer cell activities were also significantly elevated in the Chlorella group. These results suggest a beneficial immunostimulatory effect of short-term Chlorella supplementation in healthy adults, though the trial was small and short-term.

4.4 Antioxidant Status

A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial investigated whether 6 weeks of Chlorella supplementation in smokers is protective against oxidative damage; 52 smokers, aged 20–65 years, were given 6.3 g of Chlorella or placebo every day for 6 weeks. Chlorella supplementation increased plasma vitamin C (44.4%), α-tocopherol (15.7%), and erythrocyte catalase and superoxide dismutase activities. A separate investigation published in PubMed (2013) assessed oxidative stress in Iranian smokers. Thirty-eight smokers (mean age 37.11 years) were administered C. vulgaris extract (3,600 mg/day) for 6 weeks; fasted serum samples were analyzed for vitamin C, vitamin E, glutathione, malondialdehyde (MDA), and activities of superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase. Six-week supplementation with C. vulgaris extract in smokers was associated with marked elevation of all assessed serum antioxidant measures (p < 0.001) and significant reduction of MDA levels (p = 0.002). These results are encouraging but are limited to high-risk (smoker) populations and short observation periods.

4.5 Glycemic Control and Diabetes

Several human clinical trials have demonstrated some beneficial health effects of Chlorella supplementation, including amelioration of diabetes development in borderline diabetics. Meta-analyses pooling RCT data have found a significant, if modest, reduction in fasting blood glucose with Chlorella, though effects on insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and triglycerides have generally not reached significance. Chlorella supplementation did not affect triglycerides, fasting blood glucose, or insulin levels in the most comprehensive 2025 GRADE-assessed meta-analysis, indicating inconsistency across trials. Overall, glycemic evidence remains preliminary and heterogeneous.

4.6 Detoxification: Heavy Metals and Persistent Organic Pollutants

Reviews of Chlorella vulgaris describe its chemical composition including key nutrients, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds such as carotenoids, chlorophyll, and polysaccharides; these compounds have been shown to exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antiviral, anticancer, antidiabetic, lipid-lowering, and detoxifying effects. Results from animal studies indicate that Chlorella supplementation might be useful in promoting dioxin excretion.

To evaluate the effect of Chlorella supplementation on the detoxification of carcinogenic heterocyclic amines, a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study with Chlorella supplementation (100 mg/day) for two weeks was conducted. The use of Chlorella for dioxin reduction has been studied in pregnant Japanese women; research documented reductions in dioxin concentrations in breast milk following chlorella supplementation, though these studies are limited in size.

With respect to heavy metals, heavy metal accumulation in C. vulgaris is achieved through passive and active processes; the key mechanisms involved include biosorption, bioaccumulation, intracellular sequestration, and biotransformation, with passive biosorption occurring through interaction of functional groups such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, sulfate, and amine. Chlorella contains significant amounts of vitamin K, and there is at least one documented case report of warfarin therapy becoming sub-therapeutic after initiation of chlorella supplements. Clinical evidence for meaningful heavy metal chelation in humans specifically from Chlorella supplementation remains limited and mixed; some studies using Chlorella as an adjunct did not show standalone chelating activity.

4.7 Pregnancy Outcomes

Research suggests that Chlorella supplementation significantly reduces the risk of pregnancy-associated anemia, proteinuria, and edema, and that Chlorella supplement may be useful as a resource of natural folate, vitamin B-12, and iron for pregnant women. Studies showing that chlorella and spirulina can help ameliorate iron and folate deficiencies confirm that these nutrients can be absorbed from these sources in the human body. Vitamin B12, which is only synthesized by certain bacteria and archaea, is found in bioavailable forms in chlorella. Evidence in this area is promising but derives from a small number of trials with limited sample sizes.

4.8 Other Clinical Areas

Human clinical trials have also shown enhancement of antioxidative status in patients with obstructive pulmonary disorders, improvement of depression and anxiety symptoms in patients suffering from major depressive disorder, and enhancement of life quality in breast cancer patients. Double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trials conducted at Virginia Commonwealth University's Medical College of Virginia evaluated potential benefits in fibromyalgia (n = 55), hypertension (n = 33), and ulcerative colitis (n = 9); subjects consumed 10 g of pure chlorella in tablet form and 100 mL of a liquid chlorella extract each day for 2 or 3 months. Daily dietary supplementation with chlorella was found to potentially reduce high blood pressure, lower serum cholesterol levels, accelerate wound healing, and enhance immune functions. The findings suggested that larger, more comprehensive clinical trials of Chlorella are warranted. Evidence in these areas is preliminary and based on small, single trials.

4.9 Primary Dysmenorrhea

Based on evidence suggesting anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of chlorella, a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial evaluated the effects of Chlorella supplementation on the severity of menstrual pain in young women with primary dysmenorrhea; 44 girls were randomly divided into intervention and control groups. Patients in the intervention group received 1,500 mg/day of chlorella as 5 soft gel capsules, and the control group received placebo soft gels for eight weeks. This remains a single small trial and evidence is insufficient to draw firm conclusions.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas

• Cardiovascular system: Modest reductions in total cholesterol, LDL-C, and blood pressure observed across multiple RCTs and meta-analyses; effects on triglycerides and HDL-C are inconsistent.
• Hepatic (liver) function: Reductions in liver enzymes (AST, ALT) documented in NAFLD patients across pooled RCT data; preliminary evidence only.
• Immune system: Enhanced NK cell activity and elevations of pro-inflammatory cytokines (interferon-γ, IL-1β) in a short-term human RCT.
• Oxidative stress / antioxidant defense: Improved antioxidant enzyme activities and reduced lipid peroxidation in smoker populations in multiple trials.
• Glycemic regulation: Some improvement in fasting blood glucose in pooled meta-analyses; effects on insulin resistance are inconsistent.
• Reproductive and maternal health: Reduced risk of pregnancy-associated anemia, proteinuria, and edema; dioxin excretion reduction in breast milk.
• Detoxification and toxin binding: In vitro and animal evidence for heavy metal binding; limited and mixed human clinical data.
• Gastrointestinal system: The fibrous materials in Chlorella have been proposed to improve digestion and promote the growth of beneficial aerobic bacteria.
• Mental health: Preliminary human trial data suggesting improvement in depression and anxiety symptoms; evidence is early-stage.

6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

No universally established optimal dosage for Chlorella supplementation exists. The following dosages appear in peer-reviewed clinical literature and are reported here exactly as stated in those sources:

• 10 g of pure chlorella in tablet form combined with 100 mL of a liquid chlorella extract daily, for 2 to 3 months — used in Virginia Commonwealth University trials for fibromyalgia, hypertension, and ulcerative colitis.
• 5 g/day of C. vulgaris for 8 weeks — used in a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial evaluating natural killer cell activity in healthy adults.
• 5 g/day for 4 weeks (following a 2-week lead-in) — used in a double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled trial in mildly hypercholesterolemic subjects (n = 63).
• 6.3 g/day for 6 weeks — used in a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial evaluating antioxidant status in smokers (n = 52).
• 3,600 mg/day of C. vulgaris extract for 6 weeks — used in an oxidative stress study in Iranian smokers (n = 38).
• Four 300 mg tablets (total 1,200 mg/day) of Chlorella vulgaris for 8 weeks — used alongside 400 mg/day vitamin E in a NAFLD trial (n = 60).
• 1,500 mg/day of chlorella as 5 soft gel capsules for 8 weeks — used in a primary dysmenorrhea trial (n = 44).
• 100 mg/day for 2 weeks — used in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study evaluating detoxification of heterocyclic amines.
• 1,500 mg/day of Chlorella vulgaris for 8 weeks — protocol used in a registered RCT evaluating glycemic control and lipid profile in type 2 diabetic patients (n = 84).

7. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

General Tolerability

Chlorella vulgaris has a generally favorable safety profile in the studies conducted to date. The characterization "generally safe" applies with important qualifications: the evidence base covers primarily short-term use, specific populations carry meaningful risks, and contamination in poorly sourced products represents a separate safety concern distinct from the algae itself. Chlorella is usually well tolerated, but can cause nausea, diarrhea, abdominal cramping, flatulence, and green stools.

Gastrointestinal Side Effects

Digestive symptoms are the most frequently reported adverse effects of Chlorella vulgaris supplementation, occurring most commonly when supplementation begins at full dose without a ramp-up period.

Allergic Reactions and Photosensitivity

Allergic reactions, including asthma and anaphylaxis, have been reported in people taking Chlorella and in those preparing chlorella tablets. Photosensitivity reactions have also occurred following ingestion of Chlorella.

Warfarin and Anticoagulant Interaction

The most clinically significant drug interaction associated with Chlorella vulgaris involves warfarin and other vitamin K-dependent anticoagulants. Chlorella vulgaris contains substantial amounts of vitamin K — concentrations that, depending on the dose and product, could meaningfully influence the International Normalized Ratio (INR) in patients on anticoagulation therapy. Vitamin K reduces the efficacy of warfarin, potentially increasing clotting risk. A documented case involved a 75-year-old man with atrial fibrillation and cardiomyopathy on warfarin therapy for prevention of embolic stroke recurrence; thrombotest values had been well controlled until intake of chlorella, but they rose above the therapeutic limit after chlorella intake commenced. There is at least one case report of warfarin therapy becoming sub-therapeutic after initiation of chlorella supplements.

Use During Lactation

Maternal Chlorella intake would not be expected to cause adverse effects in most breastfed infants and is probably acceptable during breastfeeding. Green breastmilk discoloration has been reported.

Contamination Risks

Contamination in poorly sourced products represents a separate safety concern distinct from the algae itself. Microalgae cultivated in contaminated water sources can accumulate heavy metals and other pollutants, making sourcing and product quality of commercial importance.

Immunocompromised Individuals

Clinically significant considerations include the warfarin/vitamin K interaction and potential concerns for immunocompromised individuals, given chlorella's immunostimulatory effects documented in clinical trials. Individuals with autoimmune conditions or those on immunosuppressant medications should be aware of these properties.

References

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