Chekiang fritillary

Other Names

Bei MuBulbus Fritillariae ThunbergiiChekiang Fritillary BulbDa Bei MuFritillaria austroanhuiensisFritillaria austroanhuiensis Y.K.Yang & J.K.WuFritillaria BulbFritillaria chekiangensisFritillaria chekiangensis (P.K.Hsiao & K.C.Hsia) Y.K.Yang, Z.H.Lin & C.LinFritillaria collicolaFritillaria collicola HanceFritillaria thunbergiiFritillaria thunbergii BulbFritillaria thunbergii Miq.Fritillaria thunbergii var. chekiangensisFritillaria thunbergii var. chekiangensis P.K.Hsiao & K.C.HsiaFritillaria verticillata var. thunbergiiFritillaria verticillata var. thunbergii (Miq.) BakerFritillaria xiaobeimuFritillaria xiaobeimu Y.K.Yang, J.Z.Shao & M.M.FangThunberg FritillaryThunberg Fritillary BulbUvularia cirrhosaUvularia cirrhosa Thunb.Xiang Bei MuZhe Bei MuZhe BeimuZhebeimuZhejiang FritillaryZhejiang Fritillary Bulb

Synopsis

Chekiang Fritillary (Fritillaria thunbergii Miq.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity: Botanical Classification, Nomenclature, and Natural Source

1.1 Botanical Names and Synonyms

Fritillaria thunbergii Miq. is a perennial herbaceous plant that is widely cultivated in the south-eastern coastal, south-central, and eastern areas of China, mostly in the provinces of Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui, and Hunan. The plants belong to the genus Fritillaria, within the lily family (Liliaceae). The drugs obtained from these plants are called beimu. The species is known in the scientific literature under the accepted name Fritillaria thunbergii Miq., with recognized synonyms and infraspecific taxa including Fritillaria thunbergii var. chekiangensis P.K.Hsiao & K.C.Hsia (1977) and Fritillaria xiaobeimu Y.K.Yang, J.Z.Shao & M.M.Fang (1987).

1.2 Common Names and Regional Names

Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus (FTB) is also known as Zhe bei mu or Xiang bei mu in Chinese, Setsubaimo in Japanese, and Jeolpaemo in Korean. In English, the plant is most frequently called "Chekiang Fritillary," "Thunberg Fritillary," or "Bulb of Thunberg Fritillary." The crude drug is officially designated as Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus in pharmacopoeial references. Zhebeimu, also known as Chekiang Fritillary Bulb or Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus, is a time-honored herb in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM).

1.3 Botanical Characteristics and Geographic Distribution

F. thunbergii is widely cultivated in the south-eastern coastal, south-central, and eastern areas of China, mostly in the provinces of Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui, and Hunan. This plant has been grown commercially in China for over 700 years and is now extensively raised. The F. thunbergii plants are widely cultivated across China for their bulbs, which find great use in TCM.

1.4 Pharmacopoeial and Regulatory Status

The genus Fritillaria has long been considered a source of bioactive pharmaceutical ingredients used in Chinese medicine for thousands of years. Various Fritillaria species have been recorded in the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China (editions of 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2015), and more than 40 species have been used as plant sources for a variety of Beimu herbs. Among all the species, Zhe-Beimu (F. thunbergii Miq.), Chuan-BeiMu (F. cirrhosa D. Don), Hubei-Beimu (F. hupehensis Hsiao and K.C. Hsia), and Yi-Beimu (F. pallidiflora Schrenk) are the commonest in clinical usage and for herbal medicine development.

1.5 Common Dosage Forms and Preparations

The bulb is harvested in spring or autumn, dried, and either used whole or ground into powder for medicinal preparations. The best time to harvest this herb is during the wilting period, when the total alkaloid content is at its highest (0.088–0.218%). Drying after washing ensures quality and improves productivity. In TCM practice, FTB is typically prepared as:

Aqueous decoctions — the most traditional form, where dried bulb slices are boiled in water.
Powders and micropowders — the dried bulb ground to a fine or ultra-fine particle size for inclusion in formulas.
Herbal formulas — FTB is generally prescribed as one of the ingredients of herbal formulas, such as Danggui Beimu Kushen Wan (Chinese Angelica, Fritillaria and Flavescent Sophora Pill; DBKW) in traditional and contemporary clinical practice.
Standardized extracts — in clinical studies, FTB has been ranked highly among antitussives, bronchodilators, and expectorants; modern experimental studies report that both micropowders and aqueous extracts of FTB have been found to significantly reduce the frequency of cough and increase the remission period.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Origins in Chinese Medical Literature

Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus (FTB) has been widely used as an antitussive herb for thousands of years in China. Beimu (Fritillaria Bulbus), which is derived from various Fritillaria plants, has been used as an antitussive herb for more than 2,000 years in TCM. Fritillaria thunbergii has been documented in Chinese medical literature since at least the Ming Dynasty, where it was distinguished from its sister species Fritillaria cirrhosa (Chuan Bei Mu).

2.2 Key Classical Texts

Five classic texts documented the unique actions of FTB: Ben Cao Zheng Yao (Evidence of Materia Medica, LI Zhongzi, 1673, Qing dynasty); Ben Jing Feng Yuan (Doctrine of Origin, ZHANG Lu, 1695, Qing dynasty); Ben Cao Gang Mu Shi Yi (Supplement to the Compendium of Materia Medica, ZHAO Xuemin, 1765, Qing dynasty); Ben Cao Bian Du (Simple Materia Medica, ZHANG Bingcheng, 1887, Qing dynasty); and Ben Cao Zheng Yi (Merits of Herbal Medicine, ZHANG Shanlei, 1920, Republic of China). These texts specified that the unique actions of FTB were to clear the Lung and calm the Liver, disperse the Lung-Qi to relieve depression, and clear the Heart and reduce the heat — properties not attributed to other Fritillariae species, such as Fritillariae Cirrhosae Bulbus (Chuan bei mu) and Bulbus Bolbostemmatis (Tu Bei Mu).

2.3 TCM Characterization and Differentiation from Related Species

FTB is a significant traditional Chinese herb with bitter and cold properties, entering the Lung and Heart channels. While Chuan Bei Mu (F. cirrhosa) was preferred for moistening dryness and treating yin-deficiency coughs, Zhe Bei Mu was considered more effective at clearing heat and resolving phlegm-heat in the lungs. This differentiation remains central in TCM practice today. According to TCM theory, Zhe Bei Mu is categorized as an herb that "clears heat and transforms phlegm," making it suitable for coughs with symptoms such as thick, yellow sputum, a sensation of chest congestion, and a greasy tongue coating — signs associated with dampness and heat in the lungs.

2.4 Traditional Indications and Uses

Historical records indicate that FTB acts to clear heat, resolve phlegm, relieve cough, remove toxicity, and disperse abscesses and nodules. The bulbs are traditionally used for conditions including cough, inflammation, gastric ulcers, hypertension, diarrhea, and bronchitis. Classical texts describe Zhe Bei Mu as entering the Heart and Lung meridians, with a cold and bitter energetic profile. It was prescribed for conditions characterized by heat-related phlegm, such as lingering productive coughs, abscesses, and inflammatory swellings.

Modern records in the Zhong Yao Da Ci Dian (Great Compendium of Chinese Medicines) and the Zhong Hua Ben Cao (Chinese Pharmacopoeia) indicate that the pharmacological effects of FTB include antitussive, tracheobronchial relaxation, anti-muscarinic, expectorant, and pain suppression, with a wide range of chemical constituents, such as peimine and peiminine.

2.5 Use in East Asian Traditions Beyond China

Two related species — F. thunbergii and F. hupehensis — are also used medicinally across East Asia. The herb's Japanese name, Setsubaimo, and Korean name, Jeolpaemo, reflect its adoption into Japanese Kampo medicine and Korean traditional medicine (Hanbang), where it was similarly used for respiratory ailments.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Overview of Chemical Composition

A total of 134 chemical constituents have been identified from FTB, including 26 alkaloids, 29 compounds found in essential oils, 13 diterpenoids, two carbohydrates, two sterols, 18 amino acids, six nucleosides, four nucleobases, four fatty acids, three lignans, and 27 elements. The broad pharmacological activities of FTB may be mainly attributed to the alkaloids.

3.2 Isosteroidal Alkaloids: Primary Bioactive Class

Peimine and peiminine are isosteroidal alkaloids and are the main biologically active components of Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus (FTB). In Fritillaria thunbergii, isosteroidal alkaloids are significant phytochemicals, of which peiminine and peimine are the two principal alkaloid constituents. Bulbus fritillariae thunbergii contains peimine, peiminine, and peimisine as its principal alkaloid components.

Quantitative analysis of the hydroethanolic extract of FTB found that peimine (14.1 mg/g), peimisine (11.4 mg/g), peiminine (5.5 mg/g), and sipeimine (1.2 mg/g) were found to be over 1 mg/g.

3.3 Other Compound Classes

Beyond the dominant isosteroidal alkaloids, F. thunbergii and its bulbs mainly constitute alkaloids, essential oils, diterpenoids, carbohydrates, sterols, amino acids, nucleosides, fatty acids, and lignans. Among the alkaloids annotated by advanced metabolomics, 31 showed significant chemical differences between bulb and flower fractions, including cis-D/E-vevanine alkaloids, trans-D/E-cevanine alkaloids (with and without C20-OH), cevanine N-oxides, and veratramine-type alkaloids. With the increased development of modern methodologies, a rapidly growing number of new chemical constituents — such as frithunbol A and frithunbol B — were proven to induce beneficial pharmacological effects.

4. Established Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Antitussive and Tracheobronchial Relaxation

FTB has been extensively used in China as a medicinal herb for pulmonary relaxation. Many studies have identified and demonstrated the potential optimized pulmonary effect that isolated alkaloids have on healthy inflammatory pathways and tracheobronchial relaxation. Researchers have revealed that FTB and its alkaloids, including peimine, peiminine, ebeiedine, and puqietinone, possess effective tracheobronchial relaxant activity. Modern pharmacological studies show that peimine and peiminine display analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor biological activities. They also relax smooth muscles.

4.2 Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

FTB-derived isoverticine, puqiedine, 2-monopalmitin, zhebeiresinol, and N-demethylpuqietinone were shown to reduce NF-κB expression in the human embryonic kidney cell line HEK293 and thus exert anti-inflammatory effects. FTB extract significantly inhibited IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α production in human mast cells (HMC-1) and attenuated the phosphorylation of three MAPK signaling channels (ERK, JNK, p38/MAPK) and NF-κB expression, thereby decreasing passive cutaneous anaphylaxis response in rats. Peimine has been reported to repress the formation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-8, and in PMACI-induced HMC-1 cells, phosphorylation of MAPKs and NF-κB expression is also reduced.

4.3 Analgesic (Pain-Suppression) Mechanisms

Peimine was found to preferably inhibit Kv1.3 channels in a concentration-dependent manner and also exhibited the ability to block Nav1.7 channels. Fritillaria has a long history of use as an anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving herb in ancient Chinese medical practice, and these ion channel findings may reveal some of the potential mechanisms of this action. Peiminine was shown to inhibit both Nav1.7 and Kv1.3 ion channels, similar to lidocaine, suggesting its potential anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects.

4.4 P-glycoprotein Inhibition

Bulbus fritillariae thunbergii was found to inhibit both the P-glycoprotein (P-gp) function and expression. Alkaloids including peimine, peimisine, and imperialine were identified as the active ingredients for inhibiting P-gp activity, and benzoylmesaconine from Radix aconiti praeparata was determined to be a P-gp substrate. This mechanism has dual significance: it partially explains reported multi-drug resistance (MDR) reversal activity observed in cancer studies, and it mechanistically underpins the classical incompatibility with aconite-derived medicines (see Section 7.2).

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Respiratory System: Antitussive and Expectorant Activity

Evidence level: Animal/in vitro and limited in vivo preclinical data; no published randomized controlled human trials identified for FTB as a standalone agent.

In vivo studies showed that a high dose of FTB aqueous extract (0.104 g/kg) harvested from four different places significantly reduced the frequency of cough (p < 0.01) and increased the remission period (p < 0.05). In clinical studies, FTB has been highly ranked among antitussives, bronchodilators, and expectorants. In modern experimental studies, both micropowders and aqueous extracts of FTB have been found to significantly reduce the frequency of cough and increase the remission period, indicating antitussive activity. Traditional Chinese medicines derived from FTB are often administered in clinical settings for notable effects on cough, bronchitis, and pneumonia, among other conditions. Overall, the antitussive and expectorant evidence is supported by preclinical animal data and long-standing TCM clinical use within multi-herb formulas, but rigorous standalone human RCT data remain limited.

5.2 Anti-inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Activity

Evidence level: Predominantly in vitro and animal studies; mechanism-of-action research is accumulating but no robust human clinical trials for FTB as a single agent are available.

Forsythia suspensa and Fritillaria thunbergii Miq. are traditional Chinese medicines that exhibit the ability to clear heat and toxic material. In China, the combination of these two medicines is widely used to treat mucopurulent sputum and bloody phlegm arising due to phlegm-heat obstruction in respiratory diseases. The combination of peimine, peiminine, and forsythoside A was evaluated in an LPS-induced acute lung injury animal model for its anti-inflammatory effects via the IL-17–NF-κB/MAPK pathway. After treatment with each of the four major alkaloids at non-toxic concentrations (25 μg/mL), the mRNA expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells were reduced — an effect that did not occur when cells were treated with LPS alone. These findings support a mechanistic basis for anti-inflammatory activity but remain preclinical.

5.3 Anticancer Activity

Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro and animal) only; no clinical trials in humans have been identified. Evidence is preliminary and cannot be used to draw therapeutic conclusions.

Thirteen pharmacological effects of FTB were identified in a systematic review, including anti-cancer, tracheobronchial relaxation, antitussive, expectorant, anti-muscarinic, anti-inflammation, anti-thyroid, regulation of blood rheology, antiulcer, anti-diarrhea, pain suppression, antioxidation, and neuroprotection. In vivo studies revealed indirect anti-cancer effects evidenced by inhibiting the growth of tumor cells, as well as reversing the multidrug resistance (MDR) of conventional chemotherapy drugs such as DDP (cisplatin), adriamycin, and paclitaxel. Although FTB shows good promise as an antitumoral agent, more research on this topic is urgently needed. In the context of endometriosis, a network pharmacology and cell-based study found that high concentrations of peiminine can block cell activity and migration in 12Z epithelial endometriotic cells, which is directly related to blocking cell fibrosis. This study partially verified the network pharmacological prediction that peiminine regulates the MAPK pathway in inhibiting 12Z cell proliferation and migration, providing protection against endometriosis. This study was cell-line based and does not constitute clinical evidence.

5.4 Gastrointestinal: Anti-ulcer and Anti-diarrheal Activity

Evidence level: Preclinical (animal) only.

FTB pharmacological studies demonstrate potential anti-ulcer and anti-diarrheal properties, apart from its ability to regulate blood rheological aspects. These findings derive from animal model experiments; human clinical data are absent from the published literature.

5.5 Neuroprotective and Analgesic Activity

Evidence level: Preclinical (cell-based and animal) only.

Using the patch-clamp technique, peimine was profiled against selected ion channels stably expressed in HEK 293 cell lines. The data indicated that peimine was able to block the Nav1.7 ion channel and preferably inhibited the Kv1.3 ion channel, suggesting potential mechanisms of Fritillaria as a pain-relieving and anti-inflammatory herb. The main effects of peimine have been attributed to mechanisms including use-dependent inhibition of voltage-dependent Nav1.7 channels, which would promote pain relief. No human clinical trials specifically evaluating FTB for pain or neuroprotection have been identified.

5.6 Anti-thyroid Activity

Evidence level: Preclinical only.

Anti-thyroid activity has been listed among the pharmacological effects identified in systematic reviews of FTB, including anti-cancer, tracheobronchial relaxation, antitussive, expectorant, anti-muscarinic, anti-inflammation, anti-thyroid, regulation of blood rheology, antiulcer, anti-diarrhea, pain suppression, antioxidation, and neuroprotection. No human studies were identified in the available literature for this specific indication.

5.7 Blood Rheology

Evidence level: Preclinical only.

FTB also exhibits other potential and promising pharmacological effects, including pain suppression, anti-thyroid, anti-muscarinic, anti-diarrheal, anti-ulcer, and neuro-protective properties, apart from its ability to regulate blood rheological aspects. These effects have been documented in laboratory and animal studies but lack corroboration in human trials.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

Based on the systematic review literature, FTB's documented pharmacological profile spans multiple organ systems:

Respiratory system: The pharmacological studies demonstrate that F. thunbergii and its bulbs display a wide range of bioactivities including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antitussive, expectorant, anti-ulcer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-thyroid, regulation of blood rheology, anti-diarrhea, neuroprotection, and analgesic effects. The respiratory effects — antitussive, expectorant, and tracheobronchial relaxation — are the most historically and experimentally supported.
Immune and inflammatory system: Inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK pathways, reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α), and suppression of mast cell degranulation are documented in preclinical models.
Central and peripheral nervous system: Ion channel (Nav1.7, Kv1.3) inhibition underlies the proposed analgesic and anti-neuroinflammatory mechanisms.
Gastrointestinal system: Anti-ulcer and anti-diarrheal effects are reported in animal studies.
Oncology/cancer biology: MDR reversal and direct antiproliferative activity have been observed in cancer cell lines and animal tumor models.
Thyroid: Anti-thyroid effects have been noted in preclinical investigations.
Cardiovascular: F. thunbergii also has an antihypertensive impact, as noted in experimental studies.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Doses in Studies

The following dosage information is reproduced only as reported in source literature. These are not therapeutic recommendations.

In vivo antitussive study (animal): A high dose of FTB aqueous extract at 0.104 g/kg was shown to significantly reduce the frequency of cough (p < 0.01) and increase the remission period (p < 0.05) in an animal cough model.
Pharmacokinetics study (rat, oral, colitis model): A single oral dose of FTB at 1 g/kg was administered to a 2,4-dinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (DNBS)-induced colitis rat model to assess pharmacokinetic alterations of the major alkaloids.
Sub-chronic toxicity study (rat, oral): Rats were orally administered the extract at doses of 1 and 3 mg/kg body weight for 26 weeks. After 26 weeks, the rats were sacrificed for hematological, biochemical, and histological examination.
In vitro anti-inflammatory (cell-based): None of the four major alkaloids in FTB showed any toxicity at concentrations of 0–25 μg/mL in RAW 264.7 cells. After treatment with each compound at non-toxic concentrations (25 μg/mL), mRNA expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in LPS-stimulated cells were reduced.
Combined peimine/peiminine/forsythoside A study (animal): Male BALB/c mice received an oral dosage suspended in 0.5% CMC-Na solution (1 mL/100 g) once daily for 7 days, followed by intratracheal instillation of LPS to establish an acute lung injury model.

No standardized human clinical dosages for FTB as a standalone dietary supplement have been established in the peer-reviewed literature identified through this review. Its use in TCM occurs within multi-herb decocted formulas prescribed by trained practitioners.

8. Safety Considerations and Known Interactions

8.1 Acute and Sub-Chronic Toxicity

The acute and sub-chronic toxicity of an extract of Thunberg Fritillary Bulb was investigated. For acute toxicity tests, graded doses were administered orally to mice and observed daily for 14 days. In the sub-chronic toxicity study, rats received oral doses for 26 weeks. The estimated median lethal dosage (LD50) was 52.2 mg/kg body weight in mice (acute oral). In the sub-chronic toxicity tests, a dose of 1 mg/kg body weight presented no toxicity. Above the 1 mg/kg dose, the main adverse signs observed in male rats were body or head tremor and spontaneous motor activity reduction. No other significant changes were observed in hematology, blood biochemistry, organ weight, or organ histology.

8.2 Neurotoxicity at Overdose

In cases of overdose, Fritillariae Thunbergii Bulbus may lead to neurotoxicity. The sub-chronic animal study corroborates this, with tremor and reduced motor activity observed above threshold doses (see Section 8.1). The alkaloid basis of this toxicity is consistent with the class pharmacology of steroidal alkaloids.

8.3 Classical Incompatibility with Aconite-Derived Medicines

The traditional Chinese medicine theory of the "eighteen incompatible medicaments" refers to the incompatibility of certain Chinese herbs, indicating that pairs of herbs which are mutually incompatible should not be used simultaneously. Bulbus fritillariae and Radix aconiti praeparata (processed aconite root) are an incompatible herbal pair in this system. Research has now provided a mechanistic explanation: when Radix aconiti praeparata was combined with Bulbus fritillariae, the toxic ingredient benzoylmesaconine in the aconite root displayed higher intestinal permeability. Bulbus fritillariae thunbergii inhibited both P-gp function and expression. Alkaloids including peimine, peimisine, and imperialine were the active ingredients for inhibiting P-gp activity, and benzoylmesaconine was identified as a P-gp substrate. In practical terms, FTB alkaloids reduce intestinal efflux of aconite's toxic alkaloids, increasing their systemic absorption and therefore toxicity risk.

8.4 Pharmacokinetic Alterations in Diseased States

In a pharmacokinetics study using a colitis rat model, peimisine exhibited a significantly increased systemic exposure — approximately five times higher — under the colitis condition compared with the normal state. Peimine, peiminine, and sipeimine exhibited shorter half-lives in the colitis group without significant changes in systemic absorption. Further experiments on peimisine are required to ensure the effectiveness and safety of FTB's clinical application in the presence of colitis. This finding indicates that inflammatory bowel conditions may substantially alter the pharmacokinetics of FTB's active alkaloids and warrants caution in patients with active gastrointestinal inflammatory diseases.

8.5 Species Adulteration and Quality Issues

Approximately 25 species of Bulbus fritillariae are all called "Beimu" in commercial markets, and they can differ in price by more than 100-fold. This wide price disparity creates significant commercial pressure for substitution or adulteration, which can result in products with substantially different alkaloid profiles from those studied in the pharmacological literature. The Chinese Pharmacopoeia uses peimine/peiminine as quality control markers specifically for FTB to distinguish it from other Beimu drugs.

8.6 Absence of Human Clinical Safety Data

The available systematic review literature on FTB notes a near-complete absence of controlled human clinical trials assessing either efficacy or safety as a standalone supplement. Existing evidence is not sufficient to support clear clinical conclusions. All published toxicity data are from animal models, and the translation to human safety thresholds remains undetermined.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Chekiang fritillary may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Chekiang fritillary may help support.

No body systems available.