Calanus finmarchicus

Calanus finmarchicus (Calanus Oil): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Source, and Natural Description

Scientific name: Calanus finmarchicus (Gunnerus, 1770). The organism belongs to the phylum Arthropoda, class Copepoda, order Calanoida, family Calanidae. The dietary oil derived from it is referred to commercially as Calanus® Oil and by researchers variously as Calanus oil (CO) or wax-ester-rich marine oil.

Calanus finmarchicus is considered to be a large copepod, typically 2–4 millimetres long. It primarily feeds on different forms of phytoplankton, including diatoms, dinoflagellates, ciliates, and other photosynthetic marine organisms.

Calanus finmarchicus, feeding on phytoplankton, is a small copepod constituting a considerable biomass in the North Atlantic and is a novel source of omega-3 fatty acids. It has been reported to be the zooplankton species with the most biomass present in Nordic Seas. The copepod dominates the biomass of the mesozooplankton of the North Atlantic from Cape Hatteras in the southwest to the Barents Sea in the northeast; throughout much of its range, this species has an annual life cycle.

Individuals spend the winter at depth as pre-adult copepodites (CV or stage 5) in a resting state known as diapause, and in early spring the CV-stage individuals migrate up to the surface, moulting to adulthood and mating.

C. finmarchicus is a key component in the food web of the North Atlantic, providing sustenance for a variety of marine organisms including fish, shrimp, and whales.

Common Commercial Forms and Preparations

The zooplankton is currently being harvested and industrially processed to a marine oil product for human consumption as a marine nutraceutical containing long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Calanus finmarchicus oil is extracted from the wild marine zooplankton Calanus finmarchicus. Ground material is suspended in the presence of a protease enzyme; the oil fraction is isolated by repeated tricantation; the crude oil is purified by conventional techniques such as evaporation and filtration; and the finished oil is packed under an inert nitrogen atmosphere and stored in the dark at temperatures below 25°C.

The oil is sold primarily in softgel capsule form for human supplementation. The proprietary commercial oil marketed under the trade name Calanus® Oil is produced by Calanus AS (Tromsø, Norway). Calanus AS of Norway has developed a sustainable harvesting and oil production method that can produce marine oil from Calanus finmarchicus, which is composed of approximately 90% wax ester fatty acids on a lipid basis.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Unlike most plant-derived dietary supplements, Calanus finmarchicus as a discrete, industrially extracted oil has no documented pre-modern history of use in traditional medicine systems. The species was first formally described scientifically by Norwegian bishop J.E. Gunnerus in 1770, with his first collected samples dating to 1767. Most marine oils have traditionally been synonymous with pelagic fish body oils and cod liver oils containing triacylglycerols (TAG); originally, liver oils were used as supplements.

There are no peer-reviewed ethnobotanical, ethnopharmacological, or historical sources documenting a distinct tradition of harvesting or using C. finmarchicus as a medicinal preparation in any specific culture or time period. Claims sometimes encountered in commercial contexts about traditional Scandinavian coastal use of this specific organism as a supplement are not verifiable in primary historical sources and should not be treated as established fact.

Interest in C. finmarchicus as a novel industrial raw material for nutraceuticals developed in the early 21st century, particularly in Norway, driven by research into sustainable marine lipid sources. The body of peer-reviewed clinical and preclinical research on Calanus oil begins predominantly in the 2010s.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Wax Esters: The Defining Lipid Class

Unlike other marine oils, most of the fatty acids in Calanus oil (as much as 85%) are esterified to a fatty alcohol, forming a lipid class known as wax esters. This distinguishes it fundamentally from both fish oil (where n-3 PUFAs are primarily bound as triacylglycerols) and krill oil (where they are primarily bound as phospholipids).

The astaxanthin-rich oil contains 80–90% wax esters consisting of mainly long-chain monounsaturated fatty alcohols esterified to saturated or unsaturated fatty acids.

3.2 Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs)

The content of long-chain PUFAs in the wax esters may account for approximately 20–30% of the fatty acids, with stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and α-linolenic acid as the dominating species.

Of the total fatty acid content, 21.2% are omega-3 fatty acids, including approximately 6% and 5% EPA and DHA. Stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4 n-3), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5 n-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3) constitute about 30% of the fatty acids in the wax esters.

Stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4 n-3) is notable as an intermediate in the metabolic pathway leading to EPA and DHA. SDA is an important precursor in the metabolic pathway of EPA and DHA. SDA is found to a high extent in Calanus oil, at approximately 15% of total fatty acids.

3.3 Long-Chain Fatty Alcohols (Eicosenol and Docosenol)

The most abundant fatty alcohols in Calanus oil are the monounsaturated fatty alcohols docosenol (22:1 n-11) and eicosenol (20:1 n-9). Almost 80% of the identified fatty alcohols were monounsaturated, with eicosenol (20:1n-9) and docosenol (22:1n-11) being the dominating species.

The fatty acids in the Calanus oil wax esters are primarily derived from dietary sources, while the alcohol moieties, eicosenol and docosenol, are endogenously synthesized by the copepod. The fatty alcohols in the wax esters may be oxidized to their corresponding fatty acids after uptake, thus boosting the levels of MUFAs in the body.

The health-promoting properties of fatty alcohols became an area of interest when researchers in Cuba reported beneficial effects of policosanol from sugarcane wax on the plasma lipoprotein profile, including increased HDL-C and reduced total cholesterol and LDL-C.

3.4 Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFAs)

The monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) consist primarily of palmitoleic, oleic, gondoic, and cetoleic acid. The fatty acid composition of the wax esters includes saturated fatty acids at approximately 16 g/100 g (primarily myristic and palmitic acid), MUFAs at approximately 15 g/100 g, and PUFAs at approximately 24 g/100 g.

3.5 Astaxanthin

The oil has been reported to contain about 1,500 ppm astaxanthin. Astaxanthin is obtained from phytoplankton and is present in mono- and diester forms bound to fatty acids, and due to its strong antioxidant properties, it prevents lipid oxidation in the oil.

Calanus oil contains high quantities of the carotenoid astaxanthin, which gives the oil an orange-red color.

3.6 Lipid Composition Summary

Based on published analyses (Pedersen et al., 2014; Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2020), the major components of wax esters derived from Calanus oil include: saturated fatty acids (~16 g/100 g; myristic acid 14:0, palmitic acid 16:0); MUFAs (~15 g/100 g; oleic acid 18:1 n-9, gondoic acid 20:1 n-9, cetoleic acid 22:1 n-11); PUFAs (~24 g/100 g; ALA 18:3 n-3, SDA 18:4 n-3, EPA 20:5 n-3, DHA 22:6 n-3); fatty alcohols (~38 g/100 g; eicosenol 20:1 n-9, docosenol 22:1 n-11); sterols (~0.5 g/100 g); and minor amounts of triacylglycerols, non-esterified fatty acids, and phospholipids (~6.3 g/100 g).

Phospholipids are not detected in commercial Calanus® Oil, probably due to endogenous enzymatic hydrolysis.

The composition of lipid classes and fatty acids in C. finmarchicus depends on the season, life cycle stage, and geographic location.

3.7 Contaminant Profile and Purity

C. finmarchicus has a lifespan of only one year, resulting in very low levels of persistent organic pollutants in the lipid fraction, and refinement of the oil is therefore not necessary.

4. Mechanisms of Action

The bioactive mechanisms proposed for Calanus oil stem from its several distinct component classes, which may act individually or synergistically.

4.1 Anti-inflammatory and Anti-obesogenic Effects via Wax Esters

Recent animal studies have indicated anti-inflammatory and anti-obesogenic actions of this copepod oil beyond that provided by EPA and DHA. In high-fat diet mouse models, Calanus oil supplementation reduced adipocyte size and increased the mRNA expression of adiponectin in adipose tissue; it also reduced macrophage infiltration by more than 70%, accompanied by reduced mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, and monocyte chemotactic protein-1).

Although preclinical studies cannot pinpoint the active component(s) of the oil, there is reason to believe that the n-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA and/or antioxidants are responsible for its beneficial effects. It should be noted that the concentration of n-3 fatty acids in the Calanus oil diet was considerably lower than the concentrations used in similar studies reporting beneficial effects on obesity and obesity-related abnormalities.

4.2 Wax Ester Hydrolysis and Lipid Metabolism

While long-chain n-3 FAs in marine mammals such as fish or Antarctic krill are primarily bound as triglycerides or phospholipids, respectively, the bonding form in Calanus oil differs fundamentally; more than 80% are bound as wax esters (fatty acids esterified with unsaturated fatty alcohols), serving as energy stores for the crustacean.

The oil is different from other commercial marine oils in terms of chemistry and, possibly, bioactivity since it contains wax esters. Wax esters are fatty acids that are esterified with alcohols.

4.3 Fatty Alcohol (Policosanol) Activity

The long-chain fatty alcohols eicosenol and docosenol belong to a broader class of compounds known as policosanols. The health-promoting properties of fatty alcohols became an area of interest when researchers reported beneficial effects of policosanol from sugarcane wax on the plasma lipoprotein profile. It has been suggested that long-chain fatty alcohols may enhance physical performance through sparing of muscle glycogen stores by increasing lipid oxidation, though this proposed mechanism has not been confirmed for marine-derived eicosenol and docosenol in published human clinical trials.

4.4 Sirtuin Activation

Regarding SIRT3, EPA is discussed to enhance SIRT3 expression and therefore positively impact mitochondrial oxidative capacity. Moreover, n-3 PUFAs were shown to elicit anti-inflammatory effects through activation of SIRT1 pathways. Furthermore, DHA was linked to SIRT1-dependent improvement in endothelial function.

4.5 Atherosclerosis: Reduction in Hepatic Pro-inflammatory Gene Expression

In apoE-deficient mice, the effect on atherogenesis was paralleled by reduced expression of hepatic genes for the pro-inflammatory cytokines Ccl2, Icam1, Il1b, and Nfkb1 in mice fed Calanus oil compared to those fed a high-fat diet.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Bioavailability of Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Evidence strength: Moderate (multiple human RCTs)

The question of whether wax-ester-bound EPA and DHA are absorbable by humans was the subject of an early pivotal crossover study. In a randomized, two-period crossover study, 18 healthy adults consumed 8 capsules providing 4 g of Calanus® Oil supplying a total of 260 mg EPA and 156 mg DHA primarily as wax esters, or 1 capsule of Lovaza® providing 465 mg EPA and 375 mg DHA as ethyl esters, each with an EPA- and DHA-free breakfast. The positive incremental area under the curve over the 72-hour test period for both EPA and DHA was significantly different from zero (p < 0.0001) in both test conditions; there was no difference in plasma iAUC0-72h for EPA+DHA, or DHA individually, in response to Calanus Oil vs the ethyl ester condition; however, the iAUC0-48h and iAUC0-72h for plasma EPA in response to Calanus Oil were both significantly increased relative to the ethyl ester condition.

A subsequent 12-week RCT directly compared Calanus oil against fish oil and krill oil for long-term effects on the Omega-3 Index (O3I). Sixty-two participants completed the randomized parallel-group study: CO group (n=21, 4 capsules/day, EPA+DHA dose 242 mg/day); FO group (n=22, 1 capsule/day, EPA+DHA dose 248 mg/day); KO group (n=19, 2 capsules/day, EPA+DHA dose 286 mg/day). At baseline, the three groups showed comparable O3I values; the post-interventional O3I increase was comparable between all three groups (CO: 1.09 ± 0.55%; FO: 1.0 ± 0.53%; KO: 1.15 ± 0.65%, all p < 0.001). The study confirms that Calanus oil can increase the n-3 PUFA status comparable to fish oil and krill oil and is therefore an alternative marine source of bioavailable n-3 PUFA, especially with regard to sustainability.

A separate RCT in healthy older adults found that 12 weeks of 2 g CO intake significantly improved the Omega-3 Index in elderly participants engaging in a moderate exercise intervention, while exercise alone did not affect the O3I. These data provide the first indication that wax-ester-bound n-3 PUFA from CO are well absorbed and are suited to cover the n-3 PUFA supply. Specifically, samples from 72 participants (mean age 59.2 years, BMI 27.7 kg/m²) were analyzed; of those, 36 performed twice-weekly exercise and received 2 g of CO, which provided 124 mg stearidonic acid (SDA), 109 mg EPA, and 87 mg DHA daily.

Limitation: Recent studies have shown that n-3 PUFA from CO are bioavailable to humans, but CO had not been compared to other marine oils until recently. The published crossover study used a relatively small sample (n=18), and available comparative 12-week data remain limited in sample size. The network meta-analysis literature notes ongoing debate about whether the phospholipid form of krill oil may provide superior absorption at lower doses relative to other forms.

5.2 Metabolic Health: Obesity, Insulin Resistance, and Glucose Homeostasis

Preclinical evidence: Strong (multiple independent animal studies)
Human clinical evidence: Preliminary (small RCTs)

Animal Studies

C57BL/6J mice fed a high-fat diet exhibited increased body weight and abdominal fat accumulation as well as impaired glucose tolerance; supplementing the high-fat diet with 1.5% (w/w) Calanus oil reduced body-weight gain, abdominal fat accumulation, and hepatic steatosis by 16%, 27%, and 41%, respectively, and improved glucose tolerance by 16%.

The effects of Calanus oil were not only preventive, but also therapeutic, as the oil proved to be beneficial regardless of whether the supplementation was started before or after the onset of obesity and glucose intolerance.

A subsequent study compared wax esters from Calanus oil directly against purified EPA+DHA ethyl esters in a diet-induced obesity model. The metabolic effects of Calanus oil-derived wax esters (WE) were compared with those of purified EPA+DHA ethyl esters (E/D); after 7 weeks on a high-fat diet, the diet was supplemented with either 1% (wt:wt) WE or 0.2% (wt:wt) E/D. These effects were associated with attenuation of obesity-related dysfunction of metabolism such as insulin resistance and liver steatosis, as well as preservation of cardiac metabolic flexibility and recovery of post-ischemic ventricular function. Notably, the concentrations of Calanus oil used in these studies (1–2%, wt/wt) were 2–10 times lower than those used in previous studies reporting reduced adiposity following intake of long-chain PUFAs.

Human Clinical Studies

A key human trial investigated the effect of Calanus oil in obese prediabetic individuals. In total, 43 obese patients (BMI: 31.7 ± 5.2 kg/m²) were allocated to either a Calanus oil group (2 g CO/day) or a placebo group (2 g paraffin oil/day); markers of glucose metabolism, body composition, and energy intake were measured at baseline, after 12 weeks, and at 16 weeks. Parameters reflecting abnormal glucose homeostasis and insulin resistance in the liver, including fasting insulin (−2.9 mU/L ± 4.10, p < 0.05), HOMA-IR (−0.9 ± 1.28, p < 0.05), and hepatic insulin resistance index (−1.06 ± 1.72 × 10⁶, p < 0.05), significantly improved after a 12-week CO intervention, while no differences were observed in HbA1c, AUC0-2h Glucose, AUC0-2h Insulin, 2-hour plasma glucose, or muscle insulin sensitivity index. The authors indicate that Calanus oil causes beneficial effects on glucose metabolism and insulin resistance in obese patients, with clinical relevance to be verified in further studies.

A pilot RCT examined the effect of exercise combined with Calanus oil supplementation on body composition and metabolic markers. This single-center, randomized controlled trial in parallel group design was conducted using standardized methods at the Institute of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Leibniz University Hannover, Germany; the study involved a 12-week intervention phase. The EXCO group received 2 g/day of CO in addition to twice-weekly exercise.

A larger insulin-resistance-focused RCT examined four groups. In the double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled 12-week intervention study, 266 subjects with distinct insulin-resistance phenotypes were assigned to four groups: 2 g CO/day, 4 g CO/day, 2 g CO/day + lifestyle intervention, and placebo. The effect of CO on HOMA index reduction was influenced by the initial squared HOMA index (interaction p = 0.011).

Limitation: The human trial sample sizes are small to moderate. The largest RCT on glucose homeostasis included 266 subjects, but most trials involve fewer than 50 participants. No large-scale, multi-center, long-duration human RCT has been published to date.

5.3 Cardiovascular Health and Atherosclerosis

Animal evidence: Preliminary positive; Human clinical evidence: Indirect only

The aim of one study was to investigate the effect of dietary supplementation with Calanus oil on atherosclerosis in apoE-deficient mice; 30 six-week-old female apoE⁻/⁻ mice were fed a Western-type high-fat diet, a high-fat diet supplemented with 1% (wt:wt) CO, or a high-fat diet supplemented with EPA+DHA ethyl esters for 13 weeks. Dietary CO supplementation lowered total aorta atherogenesis by 36.5% compared to the high-fat diet (p < 0.01), and the reduction in the lesion-prone aortic arch was 34.8% (p < 0.01). The degree of aortic atherogenesis was intermediate in mice fed EPA+DHA.

No peer-reviewed human RCT has directly assessed hard cardiovascular endpoints (myocardial infarction, stroke, cardiovascular mortality) with Calanus oil supplementation. The cardiovascular rationale rests on the established cardioprotective literature for EPA and DHA in general, and the preclinical atherosclerosis data above. Numerous clinical studies have demonstrated that long-chain PUFAs are cardioprotective and reduce the risk for coronary heart disease and sudden death, but this evidence is derived from fish oil trials, not specifically from Calanus oil.

5.4 Anti-inflammatory Effects

Animal/in-vitro evidence: Consistent; Human evidence: Preliminary

The anti-inflammatory profile of Calanus oil rests principally on its omega-3 content and the proposed additional activities of its wax ester and fatty-alcohol fractions. In preclinical models, Calanus oil suppressed macrophage infiltration in adipose tissue and downregulated TNF-α, IL-6, and MCP-1 (see Section 5.2 above).

Human RCTs have not yet consistently demonstrated statistically significant reductions in circulating inflammatory biomarkers attributable to Calanus oil alone. The available human trials are primarily designed to assess metabolic or n-3 status outcomes; direct anti-inflammatory endpoints have been secondary measures with mixed results.

5.5 Omega-3 Index and Older Adults / Exercise Capacity

Evidence strength: Moderate for O3I improvement (RCT in elderly)

As noted in Section 5.1, the Wasserfurth et al. (2021) RCT demonstrated that 72 participants with a mean age of 59.2 years receiving 2 g CO per day (providing 124 mg SDA, 109 mg EPA, and 87 mg DHA daily) alongside exercise showed significant O3I improvement over 12 weeks, while the exercise-only group did not.

A related analysis from the same trial investigated sirtuin activity. In a 12-week randomized, controlled trial, healthy elderly participants performed twice-weekly resistance and aerobic training only (EX), the exercise routine combined with dietary counseling (EXDC), the exercise routine combined with intake of 2 g/day oil from Calanus finmarchicus (EXCO), or received no treatment (CON). In all exercise groups, a significant increase in activities of SIRT1 and SIRT3 was detected, with numerically greater increases in the EXCO group.

Limitation: The sirtuin analysis was conducted on a subset of participants from the larger RCT, limiting statistical power. Exercise was a co-intervention in all active groups, making it difficult to isolate the contribution of Calanus oil.

5.6 Eye Health (Retinal / Macular Nutrition)

A formulation combining lutein, astaxanthin, and Calanus oil has been explored as an alternative to fish-oil-based eye supplement formulations. One study aimed at comparing the efficacy of an existing orally administered formulation based on lutein and fish oil with a novel formulation providing the combination of lutein and astaxanthin with Calanus oil, which contains omega-3 together with their precursors, policosanols. This remains a nascent area; published peer-reviewed human clinical data specifically on Calanus oil and macular outcomes are limited.

6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

The following dosages are drawn directly from cited published studies and should not be interpreted as therapeutic recommendations.

• In the 12-month safety clinical trial, 64 subjects consumed 2 g Calanus oil in capsule form daily; a group of 53 subjects consumed placebo capsules.
• In the bioavailability crossover study, 18 healthy adults consumed 8 capsules providing 4 g of Calanus® Oil (260 mg EPA and 156 mg DHA) or 1 capsule of Lovaza® as comparator, each with a fat-free breakfast.
• In the 12-week exercise RCT with older adults, the CO group received 2 g of oil per day, providing 124 mg SDA, 109 mg EPA, and 87 mg DHA daily.
• In the prediabetes study, 43 obese patients were allocated to either 2 g CO/day or 2 g paraffin oil/day (placebo) for 12 weeks.
• In the larger insulin-resistance RCT with 266 subjects, groups received either 2 g CO/day, 4 g CO/day, 2 g CO/day plus lifestyle intervention, or placebo.
• In the 12-week comparative bioavailability study, the CO group received 4 capsules/day delivering approximately 242 mg EPA+DHA/day.

Across the available human studies, the doses tested range from 2 g/day to 4 g/day of Calanus oil.

7. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

• Cardiovascular system: Via EPA/DHA content and anti-atherogenic effects demonstrated in animal models; no human cardiovascular endpoint data.
• Metabolic/endocrine system: Insulin sensitivity, glucose homeostasis, hepatic insulin resistance — supported by small human RCTs and consistent animal model evidence.
• Immune and inflammatory system: Reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, MCP-1) in animal models; limited human anti-inflammatory endpoint data.
• Musculoskeletal system: Associated with exercise capacity and muscle function via sirtuin and n-3 PUFA mechanisms; preliminary human RCT data only.
• Hepatic system: Reduction of hepatic steatosis in animal models; improvement of liver insulin resistance markers in one human RCT.
• Lipid/omega-3 status: Consistent improvement of Omega-3 Index in human RCTs comparable to fish oil and krill oil at equivalent EPA+DHA doses.
• Ocular health: Explored in combination with astaxanthin and lutein; human evidence limited.

8. Safety Considerations

A dedicated clinical safety evaluation is among the most rigorous safety studies conducted for this ingredient. A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted whereby 64 subjects consumed 2 g Calanus oil in capsule form daily for a period of one year; a group of 53 subjects consumed placebo capsules. At baseline, 6 months, and 12 months, evaluations included vital signs, clinical chemistry, hematological evaluations, and adverse event reporting.

There was no indication of adverse effects of Calanus oil in preclinical studies at doses of 1% in the diet over periods of 13–20 weeks or 1.5% in the diet over a period of 27 weeks.

While investigational studies in mice do not indicate any adverse effects of Calanus oil at doses of up to 1.5% in the diet (approximately 2 g/kg body weight/day), concerns about the safety of high dietary exposures to components of marine oils and PUFAs in particular have been raised by regulatory authorities (EFSA, 2012). Such safety concerns included increased bleeding time, platelet dysfunction, effects on glucose homeostasis, LDL-cholesterol, lipid peroxidation, and immune function. These are class-wide concerns applicable to marine PUFAs generally; the 12-month Calanus oil-specific RCT was conducted to address this regulatory context.

The oil's short-lived source organism contributes a favorable contaminant profile. C. finmarchicus has a lifespan of only one year, resulting in very low levels of persistent organic pollutants in the lipid fraction.

Potential interactions with anticoagulant/antiplatelet drugs: As with other omega-3-containing marine oils, theoretical concerns about increased bleeding time apply to Calanus oil at higher doses. This has been identified as a class-level concern by EFSA for marine PUFAs. No Calanus-oil-specific interaction studies with anticoagulant medications have been published in the peer-reviewed literature reviewed for this article.

Shellfish/crustacean allergy: Calanus finmarchicus is a crustacean. Individuals with documented crustacean shellfish allergy should exercise caution, though specific allergenicity data on the refined oil in allergic populations have not been identified in peer-reviewed sources.

Tolerability in clinical trials: The tolerability of the CO capsules in the exercise RCT was checked using questionnaires, and no significant safety signals were reported in published clinical trial papers reviewed for this article.

Overall: Calanus oil has a preliminary-to-moderate safety profile supported by one 12-month placebo-controlled clinical trial and multiple shorter-duration human studies at doses of 2–4 g/day. Long-term safety data at doses above 4 g/day in humans, and in specific vulnerable populations (pregnancy, pediatrics, hepatic/renal impairment), are not available in the published literature at the time of writing.

9. Sustainability Context

Calanus finmarchicus is an important prey item for many ecologically and economically important fish species such as herring and mackerel, and harvesting lower down the food web can have serious impacts on the recruitment and survival of these planktivorous fish species if not done with care.

Due to the excessive abundance of C. finmarchicus, CO provides a resource-saving and sustainable alternative to oils from commercial fish stocks, but this must be understood in the context of the ecosystem role described above. Sustainable harvesting certification and management are considerations relevant to the long-term viability of this resource.

References

• Höper AC et al. (2013). Oil from the marine zooplankton Calanus finmarchicus improves the cardiometabolic phenotype of diet-induced obese mice. British Journal of Nutrition, 110(12):2186–93. PubMed PMID 23768435.
• Höper AC et al. (2014). Wax esters from the marine copepod Calanus finmarchicus reduce diet-induced obesity and obesity-related metabolic disorders in mice. Journal of Nutrition. PubMed PMID 24285691.
• Eilertsen KE et al. (2012). A wax ester and astaxanthin-rich extract from the marine copepod Calanus finmarchicus attenuates atherogenesis in female apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Journal of Nutrition, 142(3):508–12. PubMed PMID 22323762.
• Cook CM et al. (2016). Wax ester rich oil from the marine crustacean, Calanus finmarchicus, is a bioavailable source of EPA and DHA for human consumption. Lipids, 51(10):1137–1144. PubMed PMID 27604086.
• Tande KS, Vo TD, Lynch BS. (2016). Clinical safety evaluation of marine oil derived from Calanus finmarchicus. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 80:25–31. PubMed PMID 27233921.
• Schots PC et al. (2020). Possible Health Effects of a Wax Ester Rich Marine Oil. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 11:961. PMC PMID 32676029.
• Wasserfurth P et al. (2021). Intake of Calanus finmarchicus oil for 12 weeks improves omega-3 index in healthy older subjects engaging in an exercise programme. British Journal of Nutrition, 125(4):432–439. PMC PMID 32698912.
• Wasserfurth P et al. (2020). Effects of Exercise Combined with a Healthy Diet or Calanus finmarchicus Oil Supplementation on Body Composition and Metabolic Markers—A Pilot Study. Nutrients, 12(7):2139. PMC PMID 32664521.
• Burhop M et al. (2022). Marine Oil from C. finmarchicus Enhances Glucose Homeostasis and Liver Insulin Resistance in Obese Prediabetic Individuals. Nutrients, 14(2):396. PubMed PMID 35057577.
• Vosskötter F et al. (2023). Equal bioavailability of omega-3 PUFA from Calanus oil, fish oil and krill oil: A 12-week randomized parallel study. Lipids, 58(3):129–138. PubMed PMID 36960737.
• Boßlau TK et al. (2021). Impact of Dietary Modifications on Plasma Sirtuins 1, 3 and 5 in Older Overweight Individuals Undergoing 12-Weeks of Circuit Training. Nutrients. PMC8624957.
• Aasum E et al. (2025). A Novel Marine Oil from the Copepod Calanus finmarchicus: Source, Harvesting, Chemistry and Potential Application in Human Health. Lipidology, 2(2):11.
• Pedersen AM et al. (2014). Oil from Calanus finmarchicus—Composition and Possible Use: A Review. Journal of Aquatic Food Product Technology, 23(6).
• Vosskötter F et al. (2023). A simple method to isolate fatty acids and fatty alcohols from wax esters in a wax-ester rich marine oil. PLOS ONE.
• Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). Compositional guideline: Calanus finmarchicus oil.
• Gasmi A et al. (2020). Calanus oil in the treatment of obesity-related low-grade inflammation, insulin resistance, and atherosclerosis. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 104(3):967–979.
• Wikipedia. Calanus finmarchicus. (Used for ecological range and physical characteristics only.)