Bryonia: A Comprehensive Reference Article
1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Natural Source
Genus and Species. Bryonia is a genus of flowering plants in the gourd family; bryony is its best-known common name. The Bryonia genus (Cucurbitaceae) contains 12 species, which prosper in the floristic regions of the Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian and in part the Holarctic floral kingdoms. A 2024 systematic review recognized the Bryonia genus as belonging to the Cucurbitaceae family and comprising 13 known taxa with accepted names. The most medicinally significant species are Bryonia alba L. (white bryony) and Bryonia dioica Jacq. (red bryony). The most significant difference between these species, besides morphological characteristics, is found in the breeding system: B. alba L. is a monoecious species, while B. cretica L. and B. dioica are dioecious species.
Geographic Distribution and Origin. All Bryonia species have their origin in the Irano-Turanian region in Asia. Bryonia alba has, as British botanist Charles Jeffrey points out, the largest and most northerly distribution of all Bryonia species, ranging from about 8°E in Western Europe to the southern Urals and northern Iran in the east. Bryonia dioica, a climbing perennial herb with tuberous roots, occurs in temperate Europe, North Africa, and western Asia, belonging to the genus Bryonia, in which some species may contain cytotoxic cucurbitacines. Medicinal uses of Bryonia (Cucurbitaceae) have been recorded for over two millennia, and even today there is a considerable market for Bryonia preparations in homeopathic medicine. The long use as a medicinal plant has led to anthropogenic range changes, followed by naturalization and invasiveness in disturbed habitats, for example, in the United States and New Zealand.
Botanical Morphology. Bryonies are perennial, tendril-climbing herbs with palmately lobed leaves, flowers in axillary clusters, and the fruit is a smooth globular berry. Bryonia dioica Jacq. is a climbing perennial herb with tuberous roots, which is widely used in traditional medicine in Algeria for the treatment of cancers; it belongs to the genus Bryonia (Cucurbitaceae).
Common Names. Bryonia is commonly referred to as bryony, white bryony (B. alba), or red bryony (B. dioica). B. alba is also historically known as "wild nep" or "wild hops" in folk literature. Bryonia laciniosa is known in Ayurvedic tradition as "shivlingi."
Part Used. The root is dug in the autumn, chopped, then pounded into a pulp for herbal preparations. Leaves and berries are also found in ethnobotanical records, though the berries in particular carry a high toxicity risk.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
2.1 Ancient Greece and Rome
Records of medicinal uses of Bryonia have been known for over two millennia, though it cannot be certain whether they concerned B. alba or other species within the genus. Most probably the first references come from Hippocrates (460–380 BC), and other mentions come from Pedanius Dioscorides' De Materia Medica book IV, Chapter 182 (written approx. 65 BC), or Pliny's Historia Naturalis (77 BC). The ancient Greek physicians recommended the root against gout, epilepsy, paralysis, vertigo, hysteria, sores, and coughs. Dioscorides recommended it for treating burns. Hippocrates prescribed it against tetanus. The Greeks used bryony to treat gangrene, and in the Middle Ages it was used to treat leprosy.
2.2 Medieval and Early Modern Europe
This perennial vigorous vine has been mentioned as a medicinal plant in many herbals in northern Europe since medieval times and was part of pharmacopoeias. B. alba was mentioned in early modern herbals, such as those by Hieronymus Bock (1530), Leonhart Fuchs (1542), Jacobus Theodorus Tabernæmontanus (1588), and Nicholas Culpeper. During the seventeenth century, English herbalist Nicholas Culpeper documented bryony's use for coughs, phlegm, and shortness of breath.
In the late eighteenth century, a deep hole cut into roots after they had been cut off evenly at ground level was filled with juice after a day or so. This juice was used to treat oedema and was employed in the treatment of intestinal worms, convulsions, and headaches. Slices of the fresh root were applied on bruises, and an ointment made from the root was used in cases of pneumonia.
2.3 Traditional Use in the Mediterranean, North Africa, and the Middle East
B. dioica is used to treat breast cancer, nose cancer, skin cancer, and uterus tumors, as well as bruises, rheumatic pains, arthritis, minor wounds, and lesions. Other investigations reported that the roots of B. dioica are used as remedies for liver failure, stomachache, ulcers, and diabetes. Furthermore, the species is used in Iraq to treat bronchitis, while the leaves and seeds are used to cure fevers using internal or external administration.
2.4 Turkish and Central Asian Folk Medicine
B. alba roots are used especially to treat rheumatic pain and applied to painful joints traditionally in Turkey. Bryonia alba L. is the only Bryonia species found in Romanian flora, being known as a remedy for inflammatory pathologies or for its hepatoprotective and adaptogen activities.
2.5 Ayurvedic and South Asian Tradition
Bryonia laciniosa (shivlingi) holds a distinct place in Ayurvedic medicine. Ayurvedic literature survey indicated the use of the entire plant as a bitter tonic, hepatoprotective, anti-pyretic, laxative, and used to correct metabolic abnormalities. The plant exhibits its potential as an antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, anticonvulsant, anti-asthmatic, anticancer, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and aphrodisiac agent, and also displays benefits in wound healing and ulcerative colitis.
2.6 Homeopathic Tradition
In 1834, the renowned German physician Samuel Hahnemann established the homeopathic remedy Bryonia, which is typically used to treat diseases that are slow-starting and occur together with pain even when there is very minimal movement. In homeopathic medicine, bryonia is used to treat symptoms that develop slowly, including feeling lethargic, tired, irritable, extremely thirsty, and feeling excruciating pain upon the slightest movement. Psychological symptoms include feeling mentally sluggish. Bryonia is used in homeopathy to treat dry, spasmodic cough that causes pain, influenza symptoms, and severe headaches that develop slowly. For homeopathic remedies, the dried plant material is ground finely then prepared by extensive dilutions.
2.7 General Traditional Indications Across Cultures
Various diseases were traditionally treated using Bryonia species, including infectious diseases, tissue inflammation, cough, influenza, lung disease, cancers, hemorrhoids, diabetes, peritonitis, jaundice, typhoid, bone pain, and nervous and cardiac disorders. Herbalists historically used it to induce vomiting — a treatment once believed to reduce swelling (edema) — and it was also applied externally for leprosy and gangrene.
3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds
3.1 Phytochemical Overview
More than 150 reported phytochemical compounds have been grouped into families such as terpenoids, alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, and volatile oils. Phytochemical studies have discovered that Bryonia species contain a variety of phytochemicals including polyphenols, flavonoids, cucurbitane-type triterpene glycosides, sterols, saponins, alkaloids, and carbohydrates.
Earlier phytochemical investigations of B. alba revealed the presence of saponarin, isovitexin, vitexin, lutonarin, and highly oxygenated and unsaturated bitter compounds, for example, the tetracyclic triterpenoid named cucurbitacin, polyhydroxy unsaturated fatty acids, essential oil, wax, tannins, carbohydrates, and amino acids.
Phytochemical screening of roots of Bryonia dioica showed the presence of various bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, sterols and triterpenes, alkaloids, c-heterosides, carbohydrates and saponins.
3.2 Cucurbitacins
Cucurbitacins are a class of secondary metabolites initially isolated from the Cucurbitaceae family. They are important for their analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, and anticancer biological actions. Cucurbitacins are tetracyclic triterpenoid secondary metabolites, widely distributed in the Cucurbitaceae family. These bitter-tasting compounds act primarily as defense mechanisms against external injuries, and thus against herbivores, and furthermore, they have also found use in folk medicine in the treatment of various diseases. Cucurbitacins within the Cucurbitaceae family are more commonly present in Cucumis sativus (cucumber), Cucurbita moschata (pumpkin), Citrullus lanatus (watermelon), Cucumis melo (melon), and Bryonia dioica (red/white bryony). Cucurbitacin glycosides are primarily responsible for the plants' bitterness and emetic effects.
3.3 Triterpene Glycosides (Bryoniosides)
Seven new triterpene glycosides, bryoniosides A–G (1–7), have been isolated along with two known triterpene glycosides, cabenoside D and bryoamaride, from a methanol extract of the roots of Bryonia dioica. The structures were determined on the basis of spectroscopic and chemical methods.
3.4 Flavonoids and Polyphenols
The root of B. dioica is enriched in bioactive compounds such as kaempferol 3,7-di-O-rhamnoside and polyphenols that show pharmacological effects including antioxidant activity, analgesia, hepatoprotective, antihypercholesterolaemia and hyperglycaemia, and improving fertility disorders. The aerial parts of B. alba in particular have been characterized for their flavonoid content, including saponarin, isovitexin, and vitexin. From leaves, a bitter principle bryonin has been reported.
3.5 Alkaloids, Sterols, and Other Compounds
Preliminary phytochemical investigation of Bryonia dioica indicated the presence of various chemical compounds including alkaloids, glycosides, steroids, tannins, carbohydrates, and flavonoids. Bryonia plants are considered extremely poisonous due to the presence of cucurbitacins — tetracyclic triterpenes responsible for most toxic effects — along with bryonin, a toxic glycoside that affects both humans and animals, brionycin, bristesin and brioresin (alkaloids and resins with purgative and toxic effects), and cucurbitacin heterosides such as briodulcoside, bryoside, bryonoside, and bryoamaride, with marked irritant action.
4. Established Mechanisms of Action
4.1 Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms
Cucurbitacin glucosides isolated from Bryonia alba roots have been demonstrated to inhibit in vitro the arachidonic acid release from neutrophils. Both the glucosides and their aglycone suppress the biosynthesis of LTB4 and 5S,12S-DHETE. These results indicate that cucurbitacins interfere with the leukotriene biosynthesis pathway in human leucocytes. Bryoniosides were evaluated for their inhibitory effects on TPA-induced inflammation in mice, and all compounds tested showed marked anti-inflammatory effects, with 50% inhibitory doses of 0.2–0.6 mg per ear.
4.2 Anticancer Mechanisms
Many studies have acknowledged significant biological activities of cucurbitacins, such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, antimicrobial properties, or antitumor potential. Overall, cucurbitacins have the ability to inhibit cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in various cancer cell lines. Cucurbitacins effectively inhibit the JAK2/STAT3 signalling pathway, downregulating genes responsible for cell proliferation, survival, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Apoptosis induced by cucurbitacin B was shown to be associated with cytochrome c release, Bcl-2 downregulation, and STAT3 pathway inhibition. The most important biological action mechanisms of cucurbitacins include apoptotic, autophagic, cell migration and invasion inhibitory, cell cycle arrest, inhibition of cell growth and survival, and anti-inflammatory effects.
4.3 Anti-tumor-promoting Effects
All compounds tested from B. dioica showed marked anti-inflammatory effects, and, in addition, all of the compounds tested except one showed potent inhibitory effects on Epstein–Barr virus early antigen induction (100% inhibition at 1 × 10³ mol ratio/TPA).
4.4 Synergistic Activity of Multiple Constituents
In addition to cucurbitacins present in B. alba extract, other compounds in the extract, such as lectins, flavonoids, and lipids, also act synergistically to increase the biological activity.
5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use
5.1 Anti-inflammatory and Antinociceptive Activity
Evidence Type: Preclinical (animal models), in vitro; no robust human clinical trials.
A 2019 study (Ilhan et al., published in Open Chemistry) was performed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, and antioxidant activities of n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol extracts prepared from B. alba roots. Prostaglandins, proteases, and lysosomes activated in the later phase (270–360 minutes) of inflammation were assessed; the ethyl acetate extract of B. alba roots showed statistically significant anti-inflammatory activity in a carrageenan-induced hind paw oedema model and acetic acid–induced increase in capillary permeability. The ethyl acetate extract prepared from B. alba roots had the most promising anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, and antioxidant activities, with high phenolic and flavonoid contents, and could be an alternative treatment method for rheumatic disorders.
Evidence strength: Preliminary; all data are from animal/cell-based models. No human clinical trials on B. alba as a herbal preparation for inflammation have been identified in peer-reviewed literature.
5.2 Anticancer Activity
Evidence Type: In vitro and limited animal studies; no human clinical trials.
A study investigated the cytotoxic and apoptogenic activities, the phytochemical composition, and acute toxicity of an aqueous extract of Bryonia dioica roots growing in Algeria. Dried roots were extracted with water (decoction). The cytotoxic effects in the Burkitt's lymphoma BL41 cell lines were evaluated by flow cytometry. Apoptosis induction was assessed by propidium iodide staining of cell DNA and flow cytometric light scatter analysis. Cucurbitacins effectively inhibit the JAK2/STAT3 signalling pathway, and co-application of cucurbitacin D decreased cell proliferation, induced apoptosis, and G2/M cell cycle arrest by inhibiting STAT3 and NF-κB signalling. Research on isolated cucurbitacin B in lung cancer cells (A549 line) showed that cucurbitacin B may induce apoptosis in the A549 lung cancer cell line, and inhibited the proliferation rate of A549 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner.
Increasing evidence emphasizes the anticancer activity of Bryonia species, especially that of its cucurbitacin constituents, giving an interesting anticancer profile to this genus.
Evidence strength: Preliminary; results are from in vitro cell line and animal studies. The anticancer evidence pertains largely to isolated cucurbitacins, not whole plant preparations. No human clinical oncology trials have been conducted.
5.3 Antidiabetic Activity
Evidence Type: Animal models only.
Chekroun et al. (2017) used a streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rat model to establish the antidiabetic effect of B. dioica root aqueous extract. After 21 days of daily treatment using the B. dioica extract (20 mg/kg i.p.), the extract exhibited a similar effect to the standard drug in reducing blood glucose levels by −59% and −51%, respectively, restoring the normal biochemical parameters levels, as well as reversing the reduction in body weight of the rats.
A separate study on Bryonia laciniosa found that the ethanol extract of B. laciniosa seeds and a saponin fraction were evaluated for anti-diabetic action through effects on hyperglycaemia, dyslipidaemia, and oxidative stress in neonatally streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Ethanol extract (250 and 500 mg/kg, oral), saponin fraction (100 and 200 mg/kg, oral), and standard drug glibenclamide (3 mg/kg, oral) were administered to diabetic rats when the rats were 6 weeks old and continued for 10 consecutive weeks. Treatment with the ethanol extract and saponin fraction for 10 weeks produced a decrease in the levels of glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, HDL, LDL, VLDL, serum urea, and serum creatinine.
Evidence strength: Weak; exclusively preclinical animal data. No human trials identified.
5.4 Antimicrobial Activity
Evidence Type: In vitro only.
Preliminary phytochemical investigation of Bryonia dioica indicated the presence of alkaloids, glycosides, steroids, tannins, carbohydrates, and flavonoids. The results showed that Bryonia dioica extract has a valuable antibacterial activity against E. coli and K. pneumoniae. Methanol extract showed good antibacterial activity at 100 mg/ml concentration, while antifungal activity against four significant pathogens was moderate.
Evidence strength: Weak; exclusively in vitro.
5.5 Immunomodulatory Activity
Evidence Type: Animal models, one cell-based study using homeopathic dilutions.
A study examined the immune stimulation properties of Bryonia alba (BA) in different potencies (6C, 30C, and 200C) on a BALB/c mice model with a compromised immune system induced by cyclophosphamide (CPM) at a dose of 80 mg/kg. Seventy mice were randomly distributed into seven groups. Mice treated with different potencies of BA showed notable improvements in various immune parameters, including RBC, WBC, and Hb levels, as well as thymus and phagocytic indices. Treatment also increased serum levels and splenic mRNA expression of IL-2, IL-4, TNF-α, and IFN-γ.
Results indicated that the extract derived from B. alba roots could serve as a valued immunostimulant agent when administered with chemotherapy; however, additional research is required to assess the immunostimulatory effects in immune-compromised infections.
Evidence strength: Very preliminary; animal and in vitro only. No human immunomodulation trials identified.
5.6 Antioxidant Activity
Evidence Type: In vitro.
Studies proved a promising potential of the aerial parts of Bryonia alba L. as antioxidant agents. Antioxidant capacity has been assessed by DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays in multiple studies, with phenolic and flavonoid-rich extracts demonstrating the strongest radical-scavenging activity.
Evidence strength: Weak; in vitro data only, typical of the exploratory stage.
5.7 Homeopathic Use — Clinical Evidence
Bryonia is one of the most widely prescribed homeopathic medicines. A 2015 comprehensive assessment of evidence by the Australian government's National Health and Medical Research Council concluded that there is no reliable evidence that homeopathy is effective for any health condition. However, studies included in the assessment were required to meet rigorous criteria, including a sample size of more than 150 participants, the highest rating of methodological quality, and other measures. In total, 57 systematic reviews containing 176 individual studies were included. A number of the key concepts underlying the theory of homeopathy are not consistent with fundamental scientific concepts; for example, homeopathic preparations can be so dilute that a substance considered to be the "active ingredient" becomes unmeasurable. An earlier meta-analysis (HMRAG) concluded there is some evidence that homeopathic treatments are more effective than placebo; however, the strength of this evidence is low because of the low methodological quality of the trials.
Evidence strength: For the homeopathic form of Bryonia specifically, no high-quality, adequately powered clinical trials demonstrating efficacy have been identified. The overall body of evidence for homeopathy remains a subject of scientific debate.
6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated With Bryonia
- Musculoskeletal system: Rheumatic pain, arthritis, joint inflammation, sprains; traditional and preclinical evidence for anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects.
- Respiratory system: Bryonia dioica is taken orally in small quantities for the treatment of various inflammatory conditions, bronchial complaints, asthma, intestinal ulcers, hypertension, and arthritis.
- Digestive system: Historical use as a laxative, cathartic, and emetic; traditional use for constipation, bloating, liver conditions, and intestinal ulcers.
- Oncology (preclinical): Cytotoxic and apoptogenic properties demonstrated in vitro against multiple cancer cell lines.
- Endocrine / Metabolic: Antidiabetic effects demonstrated in animal models; hepatoprotective effects reported in traditional and preliminary scientific literature.
- Immune system: Immunomodulatory activity demonstrated in animal models with cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression.
- Neurological / Pain: Antinociceptive activity in animal models; used historically for headaches, vertigo, and convulsions.
7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages
Herbal / Conventional Preparations. The following forms appear in historical and ethnopharmacological sources:
- Root tincture (alcohol-based extract): Used in Western herbalism, typically at very low doses due to toxicity.
- Decoction: Dried roots of Bryonia dioica were extracted with water (decoction) in experimental studies.
- Ointment/poultice: Applied externally to joints and painful areas.
- Root pulp: The root is dug in the autumn, chopped, then pounded into a pulp.
- Aqueous extract: Used in multiple pharmacological studies; in animal toxicity studies, acute toxicity of the aqueous extract of B. dioica roots was assessed in mice with single doses ranging from 250 to 1000 mg/kg for 14 days, and sub-acute toxicity was carried out with repeated doses ranging from 64.5 to 250 mg/kg for 28 days.
Animal Study Dosages (as reported in sources). These dosages are from preclinical animal research and do not represent human dosing recommendations:
- In a streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat model, B. dioica extract was administered at 20 mg/kg i.p. daily for 21 days.
- Ethanol extract of B. laciniosa seeds was tested at 250 and 500 mg/kg orally; saponin fraction at 100 and 200 mg/kg orally; standard comparator glibenclamide at 3 mg/kg orally.
- Homeopathic potencies of B. alba (6C, 30C, and 200C) were tested against cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression in mice dosed at 80 mg/kg.
Homeopathic Preparations. For homeopathic remedies, the dried plant material is ground finely then prepared by extensive dilutions. These products follow the Law of Infinitesimal, which states that the lower a dose of curative, the more effective it is. To achieve a low dose, the curative is diluted many times until only a tiny amount, if any, remains in a large amount of the diluting liquid. Common homeopathic potencies used in clinical and research contexts include 6C, 30C, and 200C.
8. Safety Considerations
8.1 Inherent Toxicity of Crude Plant Material
Bryonia alba (white bryony) contains toxic triterpenoids called cucurbitacins, which are drastic laxatives and emetics and can cause the symptoms of food poisoning. Generally, these plants are poisonous, some highly so, and may be fatal if ingested.
When taken by mouth, Bryonia is considered likely unsafe for anyone to use. Even in low doses, the root can cause many side effects, including dizziness, vomiting, convulsions, bloody diarrhoea, nervous excitement, and kidney damage. Larger doses of the root may cause fatal poisoning.
Just touching fresh bryonia can cause skin irritation.
8.2 Berry Toxicity
Eating the berries of the bryonia plant can cause death. As few as 40 berries can be fatal in an adult. Bryonia is likely unsafe for children when taken by mouth. The root can cause serious side effects. Eating as few as 15 berries can cause death.
8.3 Pregnancy and Lactation
Bryonia is unsafe for pregnant women when taken by mouth and likely unsafe for breastfeeding women when taken by mouth. It can cause a miscarriage in addition to serious health consequences for the pregnant or breastfeeding woman.
8.4 Toxicological Assessment of Roots
In an acute and sub-acute toxicity study in mice, the clinical symptoms and mortalities were more remarkable with increasing sample concentrations; however, no mortalities, histopathological, or biochemical disturbances were observed even at the maximal dose administered (250 mg/kg) in the sub-acute model. These findings are confined to animal studies and should not be interpreted as a human safety profile.
8.5 Drug Interactions
Studies on interactions between bryonia and conventional pharmaceuticals or other herbs have not been found. The absence of interaction data should be interpreted as a gap in knowledge, not a guarantee of safety.
8.6 Safety of Homeopathic Preparations
When taken in the extremely dilute doses recommended by homeopaths, bryonia has no toxicity, although some individuals may have a personal adverse reaction to the remedy. When taken in the recommended homeopathic dilute form, no side effects have been reported.
8.7 Gastrointestinal and Other Contraindications
Stomach and intestinal (gastrointestinal, GI) disorders represent contraindications to Bryonia use given the many reasons not to use bryonia: it can cause serious side effects and death, and additionally, it can irritate the stomach and intestines.
9. Research Landscape and Evidence Gaps
The current body of scientific literature on Bryonia is almost entirely preclinical. A 2024 review article summarised the major scientific literature from 1968 to 2022, drawing upon Scopus, Google Scholar, and PubMed. The review summarised the botanical characteristics, chemical composition, medicinal uses, and pharmacological actions of Bryonia alba, thoroughly examining the species' phytochemical constituents, traditional and homoeopathic applications, and the diverse biological activities attributed to its compounds, particularly cucurbitacins. The review also highlights the need for further research to fully understand the therapeutic potential and safety profile of B. alba, acknowledging its significant role in various medicinal systems.
The Bryonia genus is divided into 13 plants considered medicinal species with significant pharmacological value for treating and preventing various ailments. A current systematic review aimed to present useful and updated findings published on this genus in the last two decades; based on PubMed, Science Direct, JSTOR, and Google Scholar, 42 available previous studies on Bryonia from 2000 to 2022 were selected and analyzed. The total number of relevant clinical human studies identified in systematic searches remains very small, and rigorous randomized controlled human trials are absent from the literature for all herbal forms of Bryonia.
References
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