Brettanomyces anomalus

Brettanomyces anomalus

1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Nomenclature

Brettanomyces anomalus is an ascomycetous, single-celled yeast belonging to the family Pichiaceae, within the phylum Ascomycota. Its NCBI Taxonomy ID is 37662, and it is formally described as Brettanomyces anomalus Custers, 1940, classified under cellular organisms → Eukaryota → Fungi → Ascomycota → Saccharomycotina → Pichiomycetes → Pichiales → Pichiaceae → Brettanomyces.

Dual-name status (anamorph / teleomorph): Like other members of its genus, B. anomalus exists in two reproductive forms that historically received separate names. Brettanomyces is the asexual budding form known as the anamorph, while Dekkera is the sexually reproducing form known as the teleomorph; these are the same organism in different forms and have not been observed simultaneously. Consequently, each species within the genus Brettanomyces has an alternative name starting with Dekkera; thus, Brettanomyces anomalus = Dekkera anomala.

Synonyms: The heterotypic synonym for Brettanomyces anomalus in formal taxonomy is Dekkera anomala M. Th. Smith & van Grinsven, 1984. In older brewing literature, strains now classified as B. anomalus were sometimes traded under the strain designation Brettanomyces claussenii. Strains such as Brettanomyces claussenii are actually Brettanomyces anomalus.

Important taxonomic caution: Searches for Brettanomyces anomalus frequently surface literature on a distinct and unrelated organism, Wickerhamomyces anomalus (formerly Pichia anomala, Hansenula anomala, and Candida pelliculosa). Wickerhamomyces anomalus, previously known as Candida pelliculosa, Pichia anomala, and Hansenula anomala, is an emerging species belonging to a completely different family (Wickerhamomycetaceae) and genus. The two organisms share only the species epithet "anomalus/anomala" and should not be conflated. Claims, properties, and safety data specific to Wickerhamomyces anomalus are not assumed to apply to Brettanomyces anomalus in this article, and attributions are made explicitly where the distinction is relevant.

Species accepted within the genus: Currently, five species of Brettanomyces/Dekkera are described based on molecular analysis: the anamorphs B. bruxellensis, B. anomalus, B. custersianus, B. naardenensis, and B. nanus, with teleomorphs existing for the first two species, D. bruxellensis and Dekkera anomala.

Phylogenetic relationships: Comparative 18S rRNA gene sequence analysis revealed that Brettanomyces anomalus and Brettanomyces bruxellensis are closely related to one another and also to their teleomorphs, Dekkera anomala and Dekkera bruxellensis, respectively; together with Dekkera custersiana and Dekkera naardenensis, these four species form a stable and distinct phylogenetic group.

2. Natural Sources and Environmental Distribution

Brettanomyces anomalus is a wild yeast found naturally across a broad spectrum of fermentation-associated and food environments. Brettanomyces species have been isolated in wineries and breweries all over the world, as well as in other substrates such as sodas, olives, kombucha, and bioethanol production plants. Brettanomyces species, including B. bruxellensis and B. anomalus, have been reported as the dominant yeast species in several black and green tea fermentations, including commercial products.

B. anomalus has also been specifically identified as a constituent of traditional dairy-based fermented beverages. It is documented as a component of milk kefir microbial communities, appearing alongside organisms such as Kluyveromyces marxianus, Debaryomyces hansenii, Saccharomyces species, and a wide range of lactic acid bacteria in Eastern European wild kefir cultures. This yeast species has been isolated from industrial fermentations including wine, cider, kombucha, kefir, olives, and bioethanol production.

Physiological tolerance: Dekkera/Brettanomyces species are facultative anaerobes and Crabtree-positive; they produce high amounts of acetic acid and ethanol during aerobic conditions. B. anomalus (also known as claussenii) is generally able to ferment lactose, a trait not shared by all species in the genus, reflecting the high genetic diversity within Brettanomyces.

3. Historical Discovery and Use

The genus Brettanomyces has a documented history rooted in nineteenth- and early twentieth-century European brewing. Yeasts of the genus Brettanomyces were isolated in 1904 from the late fermentation of English "stock beer," but it was not until 1940 that strains of these yeasts were examined in sufficient detail to classify them. The etymological origin of the Brettanomyces yeast genus lies in Great Britain, where it was first isolated by Claussen in 1904. Claussen deduced the name from the Greek words "Brettano" (British brewer) and "Myces" (fungus), though he initially classified his isolate as a Torula species.

In 1921, Kufferath and Van Laer isolated a yeast strain from Belgian lambic beers with the same characteristics described by Claussen and classified it as Brettanomyces bruxellensis. The first systematic investigation of Brettanomyces yeasts was conducted by Mathieu Custers in 1940, who characterized 17 different strains isolated from English and Belgian beers. It was through this systematic 1940 investigation that Brettanomyces anomalus received its formal species designation, as indicated by the author citation "Custers, 1940" appended to the binomial name.

In 1960, some strains of Brettanomyces were observed to form ascospores; these ascosporogenous strains were transferred to the genus Dekkera. This led to the dual nomenclature system that persists in the scientific literature.

Traditional role in fermented beverages: While B. bruxellensis has been most prominently studied in the context of Belgian lambic and gueuze beers, B. anomalus has a parallel history of association with spontaneous and mixed fermentations. Brettanomyces species are especially abundant in Belgian lambic and gueuze beers after spontaneous fermentation, being crucial for their particular taste; the recent rise of the craft beer industry, along with the latest scientific discoveries, have broadened Brettanomyces applications for novel flavors in unexplored beer styles.

Traditional use in kefir: Kefir is a fermented dairy product with origins in the Caucasus mountains, produced using kefir grains — symbiotic communities of bacteria and yeasts embedded in a polysaccharide matrix. B. anomalus (as Dekkera anomala) has been documented as one of the yeast species occurring naturally in these communities, contributing to the characteristic acid and mildly alcoholic profile of traditionally prepared kefir.

Traditional use in kombucha: Kombucha, a fermented tea beverage originating from northeast China and consumed for centuries in East Asia and Russia, is prepared by fermenting sweetened tea with a SCOBY (symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeasts). Kombucha is a beverage traditionally obtained through the fermentation of tea and is believed to have beneficial health properties; characterizing the microorganisms responsible for this fermentation is essential to demonstrate its potential health benefits. B. anomalus has been identified as a constituent yeast in kombucha SCOBYs.

4. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

4.1 Volatile Phenols

The most extensively studied biochemical outputs of Brettanomyces species, including B. anomalus, are volatile phenolic compounds. Brettanomyces species have the ability to produce strong aromatic compounds using cinnamate decarboxylase and vinylphenol reductase (VPR); the synthesis of volatile phenols occurs in two sequential enzymatic steps: (a) decarboxylation of p-coumaric and ferulic acids to their corresponding hydroxystyrenes (4-vinylphenol and 4-vinylguaiacol) by cinnamate decarboxylase; and (b) reduction of these molecules to 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol by vinylphenol reductase.

Brettanomyces anomalus has specifically been shown to metabolise p-coumaric, caffeic, and ferulic acid to their 4-vinyl and 4-ethyl derivatives; additionally, vanillin is transformed to both vanillyl alcohol and vanillic acid by this yeast, with these products being produced during fermentation.

Researchers have identified for the first time a POF (phenolic off-flavor) negative Brettanomyces anomalus strain, without the main spoilage character of Brettanomyces species; this strain (CRL-90) has lost DaPAD1, making it incapable of converting ferulic acid to 4-ethylguaiacol (4-EG) and 4-ethylphenol (4-EP). The discovery of naturally POF-negative B. anomalus strains opens avenues for their use in brewing without generating off-flavors.

4.2 Volatile Esters and Fatty Acids

The biochemical characteristics of Brettanomyces species include the production of volatile phenolic compounds (4-vinylguaiacol, 4-vinylphenol, 4-ethylguaiacol, and 4-ethylphenol), volatile fatty acids (isovaleric acid, amyl octanoate, butyric acid, heptanoic acid), organic acids (citrate, malate, succinate, phenylacetic acid), and phenols (vanillin, 4-ethylferol); a more common trait shared with other yeasts is the ability to synthesize volatile esters such as ethyl acetate, ethyl lactate, ethyl caprate, and ethyl caprylate.

4.3 β-Glucosidase Enzyme

B. anomalus produces a distinctive extracellular β-glucosidase enzyme that has attracted significant biotechnological interest. Researchers screened 428 different yeast strains for β-glucosidase activity and were the first to sequence the whole genome of two Brettanomyces yeasts, including B. anomalus, with exceptionally high β-glucosidase activity; heterologous expression and purification of the identified B. anomalus β-glucosidase showed that it has an optimal activity at a higher pH (5.75) and lower temperature (37°C) than commercial β-glucosidases; adding this enzyme to cherry beers and forest fruit milks resulted in increased amounts of benzyl alcohol, eugenol, linalool, and methyl salicylate compared to Aspergillus niger and almond glucosidase.

4.4 Ethanol and Acetic Acid

Dekkera/Brettanomyces species are facultative anaerobes and Crabtree-positive, producing high amounts of acetic acid and ethanol during aerobic conditions. In the context of fermented food and beverage production, acetic acid production by B. anomalus contributes to the characteristic sour or acidic profile of products such as kombucha and lambic beers. In higher concentrations, elevated acetic acid is regarded as an off-note in beer and wine.

4.5 Custers Effect (Negative Pasteur Effect)

A defining physiological trait of the Brettanomyces/Dekkera genus is the so-called "Custers effect" — a paradoxical inhibition of fermentation under strictly anaerobic conditions. The intriguing physiology of Brettanomyces, with its exceptional stress tolerance and peculiar carbon- and nitrogen metabolism, holds great potential for the production of bioethanol in continuous fermentors. Trace amounts of oxygen or organic hydrogen acceptors (e.g., acetone, acetoin, and dihydroxyacetone) increase NAD⁺ availability, abolishing the inhibition of fermentation under anaerobic conditions.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Application

5.1 Probiotic and Gastrointestinal Health Properties

The most directly relevant human-health-oriented research on Brettanomyces anomalus as a potential probiotic comes from a 2024 study published in Frontiers in Microbiology (PMC11300377), which isolated and characterized B. anomalus strains from kombucha tea and evaluated standard probiotic criteria in laboratory (in vitro) and invertebrate model settings.

In this study, four yeast strains isolated from kombucha tea were identified as Brettanomyces bruxellensis (UVI55 and UVI56) and B. anomalus (UVI57 and UVI58); properties relevant to probiotics were studied in these strains; all of them showed excellent survival in simulated gastric (99%–100%) and duodenal (95%–100%) juices.

The ability to self-aggregate (38%–100%), adhesion to xylene (15%–50%) and, above all, adhesion to Caco-2 cells (4%–21%), revealed the potential capacity of these strains to adhere to the intestinal epithelium.

In addition, the tested strains showed excellent antioxidant capacity (82%–94%), antimicrobial activity against different pathogens (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enterica, Listeria monocytogenes, and Bacillus cereus), as well as remarkable cytotoxic activity against colon, melanoma, and ovarian tumor cell lines.

Using Caenorhabditis elegans as a model organism, strain UVI56 (B. bruxellensis) exhibited ability to both extend the lifespan of the nematode and protect it against infection by S. enterica; these results support the probiotic and functional properties of the analyzed strains; in conclusion, the study revealed that kombucha tea could be a source of potential probiotics and that the characterized Brettanomyces strains could be exploited directly as probiotics or for the development of new functional foods.

Evidence strength: All findings above are preliminary, in vitro and invertebrate-model only. No human clinical trials or controlled animal studies specifically evaluating B. anomalus as a probiotic supplement have been published as of the current date. The results are hypothesis-generating and cannot be extrapolated to clinical outcomes in humans.

5.2 Antioxidant Activity

As noted in the Frontiers in Microbiology 2024 study, Brettanomyces strains isolated from kombucha, including B. anomalus, demonstrated antioxidant capacity in the range of 82%–94% in in vitro assays. These kombucha-isolated yeasts presented excellent functional properties, including both antioxidant and antimicrobial activity against various pathogens (with variability between strains) and cytotoxic effects against colon, melanoma, and ovarian tumor cell lines.

Evidence strength: In vitro only. No human or animal data on antioxidant effects specifically attributable to orally consumed B. anomalus exist in the peer-reviewed literature.

5.3 Antimicrobial Activity

In the same study, all four Brettanomyces strains (including B. anomalus UVI57 and UVI58) exhibited antimicrobial activity against a panel of bacterial pathogens in vitro. The mechanisms behind this antimicrobial action were not fully characterized in this study but likely involve the production of organic acids, ethanol, and possibly other metabolites generated during fermentation.

Important caveat: The widely discussed killer toxin / mycocin (e.g., "panomycocin," "WA18," "Pikt") literature predominantly involves Wickerhamomyces anomalus, not Brettanomyces anomalus. These are taxonomically distinct organisms in different families. For example, Wickerhamomyces anomalus strain 18 secretes a mycocin named WA18 that inhibits wine spoilage yeasts belonging to Brettanomyces bruxellensis — in fact, B. anomalus is a potential target of such toxins in this context, not the producer.

Evidence strength: The antimicrobial properties demonstrated for B. anomalus itself are limited to one in vitro study. Claims about killer toxins or mycocins cannot be attributed to Brettanomyces anomalus on the basis of the current evidence.

5.4 Cytotoxic Activity Against Tumor Cell Lines

The 2024 Frontiers in Microbiology study reported that kombucha-isolated Brettanomyces strains, including those identified as B. anomalus, exhibited cytotoxic activity against colon, melanoma, and ovarian tumor cell lines in vitro. The studied strains demonstrated, in vitro, great resistance to human body temperature and adverse gastrointestinal conditions, as well as great ability to adhere to the intestinal epithelium, with inherent strain variability; additionally, these kombucha-isolated yeasts presented excellent functional properties, including both antioxidant and antimicrobial activity against various pathogens and cytotoxic effects against colon, melanoma, and ovarian tumor cell lines.

Evidence strength: Strictly in vitro, cell-line-based. In vitro cytotoxicity against cancer cell lines is a very preliminary finding and does not constitute evidence of anticancer activity in living organisms. No animal or human data exist.

5.5 β-Glucosidase Activity and Bioavailability of Plant Aglycones

The β-glucosidase produced by B. anomalus has been proposed as a tool for releasing bound aromatic compounds from plant glucosides in food matrices. Plant materials used in the food industry contain up to five times more aromas bound to glucose (glucosides) than free, unbound aromas, making these bound aromas an unused flavouring potential; the aim of one study was to identify and purify a novel β-glucosidase from Brettanomyces yeasts capable of releasing bound aromas present in various food products.

This enzyme activity is also potentially relevant to the bioavailability of dietary phytochemicals that occur naturally as glycoside conjugates (e.g., flavonoid glucosides), though no studies have directly investigated this angle in relation to B. anomalus in human subjects or animal models.

Evidence strength: Laboratory/enzymatic characterization only. No clinical data.

5.6 Role in Kombucha Fermentation and Functional Food Production

B. anomalus plays a functional ecological role within the SCOBY microbial consortium of kombucha. In kombucha tea fermentation, the flavour and aroma contribution of Brettanomyces species may not be entirely related to volatile phenols; Brettanomyces species, including B. bruxellensis and B. anomalus, have been reported as the dominant yeast species in several black and green tea fermentations, including commercial products.

Evidence strength: Microbiological and fermentation science; not direct human health evidence.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Brettanomyces anomalus

• Gastrointestinal system: B. anomalus has demonstrated survival through simulated gastric and duodenal conditions and adhesion to intestinal epithelial (Caco-2) cells in vitro, suggesting potential for gut colonization relevant to probiotic research. To establish the safety of microorganisms used in food production, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has proposed a safety assessment system for certain groups of microorganisms based on qualified presumption of safety (QPS) status, with assessment based on four pillars: taxonomic identity, body of knowledge, potential pathogenicity, and end use. Brettanomyces anomalus does not currently hold QPS status, and no formal EFSA or equivalent safety assessment specific to this organism in a probiotic context has been published.
• Immune system / antimicrobial: In vitro antimicrobial activity against a range of bacterial pathogens has been demonstrated, but mechanisms are not fully elucidated and no in vivo or human data exist.
• Antioxidant defense systems: High antioxidant capacity measured in vitro (82%–94% in cell-free assays) has been reported for kombucha-derived Brettanomyces strains including B. anomalus; physiological relevance in human consumers is unknown.
• Oncology (preliminary): Cytotoxicity against colon, melanoma, and ovarian tumor cell lines in vitro represents the most preliminary tier of oncological research, with no translational significance established.

7. Forms, Preparations, and Dosage

7.1 Natural Dietary Forms

Brettanomyces anomalus is consumed as part of traditionally fermented foods and beverages in which it naturally occurs as a component of the microbial community. These include:

• Milk kefir: A fermented dairy drink produced with kefir grains. B. anomalus (as Dekkera anomala) is one of the yeast species present in wild kefir cultures, where it coexists with lactic acid bacteria and other yeasts.
• Kombucha: A fermented tea beverage in which B. anomalus has been identified as a dominant yeast species in some preparations.
• Belgian lambic and craft beers: Spontaneously fermented beers where Brettanomyces species, including B. anomalus, contribute characteristic flavors.

7.2 Intentional Supplement/Starter Culture Use

Brettanomyces anomalus is one of the two species of Brettanomyces currently used in brewing. B. anomalus, a lesser-known strain which includes the variation claussenii, produces more fruity flavors. Commercial brewing yeast suppliers make B. anomalus cultures available as single-strain or blended starter cultures for craft beer production. In this context, it is used as a fermentation agent rather than a dietary supplement in the regulatory sense.

7.3 Dosages Reported in Studies

No clinical trials have established a dosage of Brettanomyces anomalus for any health purpose. The sole study evaluating probiotic-relevant properties in vitro (Frontiers in Microbiology, 2024) used laboratory cultures of strains UVI57 and UVI58 isolated from kombucha tea for in vitro assessments; no oral dosing regimen for human subjects was tested or reported. Consequently, no evidence-based dosage recommendation for B. anomalus as a dietary supplement can be stated.

8. Safety Considerations

8.1 General Safety in Immunocompetent Individuals

Brettanomyces anomalus has a long history of incidental human consumption via traditionally fermented foods (kefir, kombucha, lambic beers). Generally speaking, the immunocompetent body experiences multitudinous exposure to fungal cells through air, food, and contact with fomites, which does not result in disease manifestation. No documented cases of Brettanomyces anomalus causing infectious disease in immunocompetent individuals appear in the peer-reviewed literature.

8.2 Regulatory Safety Status

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has proposed a safety assessment system for microorganisms used in food production, the Qualified Presumption of Safety (QPS) system, based on four pillars: taxonomic identity, body of knowledge, potential pathogenicity, and end use. As of the literature available, Brettanomyces anomalus does not appear on the EFSA QPS list of microorganisms deliberately added to food. This absence reflects the lack of a formal positive safety determination, not necessarily evidence of harm.

8.3 Potential Pathogenicity in Vulnerable Populations

A critical and necessary distinction must be made between Brettanomyces anomalus and its taxonomic near-relative Wickerhamomyces anomalus (formerly Pichia anomala), the latter of which has a documented — though rare — clinical profile as an opportunistic pathogen. Wickerhamomyces anomalus is a rare but increasingly reported causative agent of nosocomial fungemia outbreaks, preponderantly in low-birth-weight (LBW) infants and occasionally in immunocompromised patients. These clinical reports pertain to Wickerhamomyces anomalus, not to Brettanomyces anomalus, and should not be applied to the latter organism.

Nonetheless, as a general principle applicable to any live yeast organism consumed in fermented foods, reports in the literature summarize the prevalence of opportunistic fungal pathogens in food, beverages, and supplements and case reports of invasive fungal infections that are potentially linked to food, which require further evaluation of causation through traceback assessments; the attack rate for invasive fungal infections spread through food and water is unknown, and the significant factors influencing morbidity have not been described except through speculation and anecdotal reports.

In documented cases of yeast fungemia from the broader group of fermentation-associated yeasts, central venous catheterization, parenteral feeding, low birth weight, and immunocompromised status have been identified as major risk factors; the majority of cases are pediatric, particularly neonatal. Whether B. anomalus specifically poses any analogous risk has not been studied.

8.4 Volatile Phenol Production as a Safety-Adjacent Consideration

Two of the most important compounds produced by Brettanomyces are the volatile phenols 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol; these compounds may range from a few micrograms up to several milligrams per liter and may affect sensory quality depending on the chemical composition of the matrix. While these volatile phenols are not classified as health hazards at the concentrations found in fermented beverages, they are responsible for off-flavors at higher concentrations and are relevant to understanding the impact of B. anomalus on fermented food quality.

8.5 Acetic Acid Production

B. anomalus, like other Brettanomyces species, produces acetic acid during aerobic fermentation. High concentrations of acetic acid in fermented beverages constitute a well-recognized quality defect. At concentrations encountered in typical fermented food consumption, acetic acid does not present a health concern for the general population.

8.6 Absence of Drug Interaction Data

No peer-reviewed studies have evaluated pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic interactions between Brettanomyces anomalus (as an intentionally consumed organism) and pharmaceutical drugs. The absence of such data precludes any evidence-based statement about interactions.

9. Biotechnological and Industrial Research Context

Beyond its role in fermented food and its preliminary health-related properties, Brettanomyces anomalus has attracted attention in industrial biotechnology. Whilst currently mainly considered a spoilage organism responsible for off-flavour production in wine, cider, or dairy products, an increasing number of authors report that in some cases, these yeasts can add beneficial or interesting aromas that increase the flavour complexity of fermented beverages, such as specialty beers; moreover, the intriguing physiology of Brettanomyces, with its exceptional stress tolerance and peculiar carbon- and nitrogen metabolism, holds great potential for the production of bioethanol in continuous fermentors.

The newly identified B. anomalus β-glucosidase offers new possibilities for food bioflavouring, and this study was the first to sequence the B. anomalus genome and to identify the relevant enzyme.

Research has shown that the Brettanomyces collection is well described using similarity in genomic organization, and that there is a direct correlation between genomic background and phenotypic characteristics; genomic patterns affecting flavor production, maltose assimilation, beta-glucosidase activity, and phenolic off-flavor (POF) production have been reported; this knowledge yields new insights into Brettanomyces population survival strategies, artificial selection pressure, and loss of carbon assimilation traits.

10. Summary of Evidence and Research Gaps

Brettanomyces anomalus is a well-characterized fermentation yeast with a long history of incidental human consumption through traditionally fermented foods including kefir, kombucha, and lambic-style beers. Its biochemistry — particularly the production of volatile phenols, esters, organic acids, and the β-glucosidase enzyme — has been investigated in depth in the context of food science and fermentation technology.

As a putative dietary supplement or probiotic ingredient, the evidence base is at an extremely early stage. One in vitro and invertebrate-model study (2024) demonstrated that B. anomalus strains isolated from kombucha satisfy several laboratory criteria for probiotic candidacy, including gastrointestinal survival, adhesion to intestinal epithelial cells, antioxidant capacity, and antimicrobial activity. These findings are preliminary and require validation in animal and human clinical trials before any health claims can be substantiated. No human clinical trial data on B. anomalus as a supplement exist. No evidence-based dosage for human use has been established. The organism does not hold EFSA QPS status.

Major research gaps include: (1) randomized controlled trials in humans; (2) formal safety evaluation under EFSA or equivalent frameworks specifically for B. anomalus as a probiotic; (3) characterization of strain-level variability in probiotic-relevant properties; and (4) investigation of any clinically meaningful drug or nutrient interactions.

References

• NCBI Taxonomy Browser: Brettanomyces anomalus (Taxonomy ID: 37662)
• Frontiers in Microbiology (2024): Potential probiotic and functional properties of Brettanomyces strains isolated from kombucha tea
• ScienceDirect Topics: Brettanomyces — an overview (Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology)
• ScienceDirect Topics: Brettanomyces — an overview (Agricultural and Biological Sciences)
• Applied and Environmental Microbiology (2004): Molecular Detection and Identification of Brettanomyces/Dekkera bruxellensis and Brettanomyces/Dekkera anomalus in Spoiled Wines
• International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology (1996): Phylogenetic Relationships among Members of the Ascomycetous Yeast Genera Brettanomyces, Debaryomyces, Dekkera, and Kluyveromyces
• PMC (2020): Assessing Population Diversity of Brettanomyces Yeast Species and Identification of Strains for Brewing Applications
• Journal of Applied Microbiology (2016): Characterization of the recombinant Brettanomyces anomalus β-glucosidase and its potential for bioflavouring
• ScienceDirect (1994): The biotransformation of simple phenolic compounds by Brettanomyces anomalus
• International Journal of Food Microbiology (2015): Brettanomyces yeasts — From spoilage organisms to valuable contributors to industrial fermentations
• FEMS Yeast Research (2022): Molecular approaches improving our understanding of Brettanomyces physiology
• Journal of the Institute of Brewing (2019): Molecular and biochemical aspects of Brettanomyces in brewing
• PMC (2023): Application of Novel Short Tandem Repeat Typing for Wickerhamomyces anomalus Reveals Simultaneous Outbreaks within a Single Hospital
• PMC (2024): Fungemia With Wickerhamomyces anomalus: A Case Report and Literature Review
• PMC (2018): Risk Mitigation for Immunocompromised Consumers of Mucormycete Spoiled and Fermented Foods
• PMC (2021): Purification and Characterization of WA18, a New Mycocin Produced by Wickerhamomyces anomalus Active in Wine Against Brettanomyces bruxellensis Spoilage Yeasts
• PMC (2018): Candidacidal Activity of a Novel Killer Toxin from Wickerhamomyces anomalus against Fluconazole-Susceptible and -Resistant Strains
• PMC (2019): Removal of 4-Ethylphenol and 4-Ethylguaiacol with Polyaniline-Based Compounds in Wine-Like Model Solutions and Red Wine
• PMC (2022): The characterisation of Wickerhamomyces anomalus M15, a highly tolerant yeast for bioethanol production using seaweed derived medium