Bermuda grass

Bermuda Grass (Cynodon dactylon): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Nomenclature, and Natural Source

Botanical and Scientific Names

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. is a perennial grass belonging to the family Poaceae. It is classified under the family Poaceae and is one of the ten auspicious herbs constituting the group Dasapushpam in Ayurveda. The binomial Cynodon dactylon is the accepted scientific name; the genus name Cynodon derives from the Greek meaning "dog tooth," referencing the shape of the plant's rhizomes.

Common Names and Vernacular Synonyms

Various common names for this plant include dhoob, ethane grass, dubo, Bahama grass, durva grass, dog grass, dog's tooth grass, devil's grass, grama, Indian doab, wire grass, arugampul, and scutch grass. In English it is known as Bahama grass, Bermuda grass, common couch, devil's grass, giant Bermuda grass, green couch, hariali grass, Indian couch, plain couch, and quick grass; in French it is called chiendent pied-de-poule; in German, Bermudagras and Hundezahngras; in India it is known as dhub and doob; in Italian as gramina; and in Spanish as grama rastrera and zacate de Bermuda. In Hindi it is known as dhub, doob, or hariali; other regional names include durba (Bengali), garikoihallu (Kanarese), durva (Marathi), durva or haritali (Sanskrit), arugampullu (Tamil), garikagoddi (Telugu), and dhubkhabbal (Punjabi).

Geographic Origin and Distribution

The plant is probably native to East Africa, where it is widely distributed from sea level to 2,160 m altitude. Cynodon dactylon, commonly known as Bermuda grass, is an herbaceous perennial with global distribution in tropical and subtropical regions. It is not an indigenous plant of Bermuda but aggressively grows there and is sometimes called crabgrass in that context. It is a weed plant found in many regions such as East Africa, Asia, Australia, and Southern Europe, and is used as forage, as a medicinal plant, and for desert greening.

Botanical Description

It is a stoloniferous grass which grows by the roadsides, lawns, and abandoned lands of tropical Asia, reaching about 40 cm tall from a rhizome. It is a perennial, creeping grass forming dense mats up to 30 cm high. Its stems are slender and prostrate, giving off rhizomes that spread laterally. The leaf-blades are linear, 2–15 cm long, with a pointed tip. Tiny flowers appear in crowded clusters of 3–7 on slender spikes, typical of Poaceae. The plant is propagated through seeds and rhizomes.

Plant Parts Used and Common Preparations

Different parts of the plant, including leaves, roots, and rhizomes, are used for their medicinal properties. It is used in the form of powder, paste, or juice to treat a wide range of ailments due to its extensive therapeutic properties. Pharmacotherapy with Cynodon dactylon (Sanskrit name durva) has been described in Ayurvedic texts. The traditional preparation called swaras (juice) has been evaluated for its phytochemical quality and phytomedicinal activities. The aqueous fluid extract of the rhizome is used as an anti-inflammatory, diuretic, anti-emetic, purifying agent, and also in dysentery.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ayurveda (India)

Its medicinal value has been recognized since the pre-historic Vedic period. References to the medicinal properties of Durva can be found in ancient texts such as the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita in Ayurvedic literature. In the Charaka Samhita, one of the oldest classical texts of Ayurveda, the plant is described by different names for different activities, including "Sita" and "Lata" for its role in improving body complexion, and "Satavirya" and "Sahasravirya" for its fertility-promoting activity. Known as Durva in Ayurveda, it is a medicinally and culturally significant plant widely described in classical Ayurvedic texts. Possessing cold potency with bitter, astringent, and sweet tastes, it is traditionally used for managing conditions such as Kapha disorders, skin diseases, burning sensations, excessive thirst, and herpes.

Records of Cynodon dactylon date back over 2,000 years in classical Ayurvedic texts such as the Charaka Samhita and the Sushruta Samhita. In these authoritative works, Dhurva is praised as a Rasayana (rejuvenative agent) that balances Pitta dosha and cools the blood. Ancient healers recommended a decoction of fresh grass juice for bleeding disorders, wounds, and urinary complaints. In classical Ayurvedic classification, Durva is included in the Prajasthapak Mahakashay (substances which help sustain the fetus) and is also mentioned as Vranaropak (substances facilitating wound healing).

Elaborative description about the treatment of wounds is mentioned in different classical texts of Ayurveda, particularly the Sushruta Samhita (ca. 1000 BCE), under the name "Vrana" or wounds. In different classical Ayurvedic texts, about 164 medicinal plants, 24 metals and minerals, and 18 animal products are described for their wound-healing activity under the term "Vranaropaka."

Despite being considered a problem weed by farmers, doob ghas is a valuable herbal medicinal plant used as first aid for minor injuries. Farmers traditionally apply crushed leaves to minor wounds as a styptic to stop bleeding.

Unani Medicine

According to the Unani system of medicine, the Cynodon plant is described as bitter, with a sharp hot taste, good odor, and classified as laxative, brain and heart tonic, aphrodisiac, alexipharmic, emetic, emmenagogue, expectorant, carminative, and useful against grippe in children, and for pains, inflammations, and toothache. The aqueous fluid extract of the rhizome is used in the Unani tradition as an anti-inflammatory, diuretic, anti-emetic, and purifying agent.

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)

Cynodon dactylon is used in TCM formulations to treat conditions such as urinary tract infections and gastrointestinal infections. The plant is also referenced in traditional folk medicine of the Middle East (including Turkey), where it has been used for various ailments. Different preparations from this herb are extensively used as folk medicine in the Middle East, including Turkey, besides India and Italy. In India, the ground juice of C. dactylon has been commonly used as a folk medicine for the treatment of intestinal-worm infections.

Siddha and Other Regional Traditions

Cynodon dactylon has a rich history of use in traditional medicine systems including Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani, where it is known by various vernacular names such as Durba, Arugu, and Garike. Cynodon dactylon is widely used in Iranian folk medicine for the treatment of various cardiovascular diseases such as heart failure and atherosclerosis. A traditional use in India is for eye disorders and weak vision; the afflicted are advised to walk barefoot on dew drops spread over Cynodon plants each morning.

Breadth of Traditional Indications

The plant has been long used in traditional medicines to treat various ailments such as anasarca, cancer, convulsions, cough, cramps, diarrhea, dropsy, dysentery, epilepsy, headache, hemorrhage, hypertension, hysteria, measles, rubella, snakebite, sores, stones, tumors, urogenital disorders, warts, and wounds. It has been used to treat urinary tract infection, calculi, and prostatitis.

3. Key Phytochemical Constituents and Active Compounds

Overview of Chemical Profile

Phytochemical analysis has shown that Cynodon dactylon contains flavanoids, alkaloids, glycosides, terpenoids, triterpenoid steroids, saponins, tannins, resins, phytosterols, reducing sugars, carbohydrates, proteins, volatile oils, and fixed oils. The presence of flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin, and vitexin), alkaloids, terpenoids, saponins, and phenolic acids as important metabolites has been verified by phytochemical profiling.

Flavonoids

The flavonoids apigenin, luteolin, orientin, and vitexin are among the significant phytoconstituents identified from this plant. Beta-carotene, violaxanthin, neoxanthin, phenolics, phytosterols, glycosides, saponins, and volatile oils are also present. Using HPLC–ESI MS analysis, aqueous extracts of C. dactylon were found to contain luteolin, apigenin, 6-C-pentosyl-8-C-hexosyl luteolin, and 6-C-hexosyl-8-C-pentosyl apigenin. These C-glycosylated flavones are considered particularly relevant to the plant's biological activities.

Terpenoids and Sterols

Phytochemical studies reveal that Durva contains a rich profile of bioactive compounds including proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, alkaloids, β-sitosterol, flavonoids, glycosides, carotene, vitamin C, essential oils, palmitic acid, and triticin. It contains the essential oil triticin at approximately 12.4%. Other chemical constituents include glycosides, saponins, tannins, flavonoids, and carbohydrates.

Volatile Compounds

Of the 22 compounds found in C. dactylon, the most common were hydroquinone (69.49%), levoglucosenone (2.72%), and furfural (6.0%). The main fatty acid and lipid constituents of C. dactylon include glycerin, 9,12-octadecadienoyl chloride, and hexadecanoic acid.

Macronutrient and Mineral Profile

Nutritional analysis showed that each 100 g contained (on a zero-moisture basis) 11.6 g protein, 2.1 g fat, 75.9 g total carbohydrate, 25.9 g fiber, 10.4 g ash, 530 mg Ca, 220 mg P, 112.0 mg Fe, 1630 mg K, and 28 g beta-carotene equivalent. Additional substances reported include vitamin C, β-carotene, lipids, and palmitic acid.

Endophyte-Associated Metabolites

Recent research highlights that the plant's association with endophytic fungi contributes to the synthesis of bioactive secondary metabolites. These fungal endophytes produce a wide spectrum of bioactive compounds including antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, immunosuppressive, and plant growth-promoting agents.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Antioxidant Mechanisms

The plant is rich in bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, alkaloids, triterpenoids, glycosides, and phenolic compounds that exhibit antioxidant activity, potentially counteracting oxidative stress. Cynodon dactylon has potent 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical and nitric oxide scavenging activities.

Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

Important phytoconstituents including the flavonoids apigenin, luteolin, orientin, and vitexin may play a major role in anti-inflammatory effects, as flavonoids have been demonstrated as anti-inflammatory agents due to their inhibitory effects on various molecular targets. Significant reductions in the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IFN-γ and TNF-α, and anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-4 and IL-10, were observed following treatment with plant extracts in preclinical studies.

Wound Healing Mechanisms

Phenolic acids and flavonoids present in C. dactylon support its wound-healing property for their anti-oxidative activity, which is responsible for collagenesis. The flavonoid fraction of Cynodon dactylon, when applied externally daily on excised wound areas for 8 days, facilitated the healing process as evidenced by increase in collagen and protein and decrease in lipid peroxide in granulation tissue.

Antidiabetic Mechanisms

The bioactive compounds flavonoids, alkaloids, and saponins are known for their antidiabetic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties, which may contribute to improved insulin sensitivity, enhanced glucose uptake, and reduced oxidative stress. Mechanistically, the herb may act by stimulating insulin secretion, improving β-cell function, or inhibiting glucose absorption in the intestines. Luteolin, apigenin, 6-C-pentosyl-8-C-hexosyl luteolin, and 6-C-hexosyl-8-C-pentosyl apigenin have been shown to interact with SGLT2 (sodium-glucose co-transporter 2) according to in silico docking approaches used to evaluate hypoglycemic activity.

Angiogenic Activity

Researchers investigated the effects of the aqueous extract from the rhizomes of C. dactylon on vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Flow cytometric analysis showed increased expression of total VEGF in HUVECs treated with the aqueous extract, with a 12% increase in expression detected in extract-treated cells compared to PBS-treated ones.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Activity

Important caveat: The large majority of published research on Cynodon dactylon consists of preclinical studies using animal models (rodents) or in vitro cell-culture systems. Controlled human clinical trials are sparse, and where limited clinical data exist, study populations are generally small. Evidence across most therapeutic areas must therefore be characterized as preliminary, and broader conclusions cannot be drawn without robust human trials.

5.1 Antidiabetic and Glycemic Activity

This is among the most studied pharmacological areas for C. dactylon. An investigation was carried out to evaluate the traditional use scientifically. Since the aqueous extract of C. dactylon was found to have high antidiabetic potential, the ethanolic extract was studied in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats.

The dose of 500 mg/kg body weight was identified as the most effective dose, as it lowered the blood glucose levels of normal animals by 42.12% and of diabetic animals by 43.42% during fasting blood glucose and glucose tolerance tests respectively. Rats treated daily with this dose for 2 weeks showed a significant reduction of 56.34% in fasting blood glucose level. Total cholesterol, LDL, and triglyceride levels were also decreased by 32.94%, 64.06%, and 48.46% respectively, while cardioprotective HDL increased by 16.45%.

In normal rats, an aqueous extract of Cynodon dactylon significantly reduced blood sugar levels for up to six hours. A dose-dependent response was observed up to 500 mg/kg body weight. When the dosage was increased to 1000 mg/kg body weight, the response, however, reduced.

A study investigated the role of ethanolic extract of Cynodon dactylon against hepatic complications in STZ-induced type 2 diabetic models at a pre-identified most effective dose of 500 mg/kg body weight.

Evidence strength: All antidiabetic studies cited are animal (rodent) studies. No controlled human clinical trials establishing antidiabetic efficacy in humans have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature to date. This evidence must be considered preliminary and not directly extrapolable to humans.

5.2 Wound Healing

Ayurveda is a rich source of plant drugs for management of wounds, and Cynodon dactylon is used as a hemostatic and wound healing agent from an ethnopharmacological point of view. A study was undertaken to provide scientific validation of the plant for wound healing activity. Aqueous extract of the plant was prepared and phytochemical constituents were detected by HPLC analysis.

Pharmacological testing of a 15% ointment (w/w) of the extract was conducted against placebo control and the standard comparator framycetin on full-thickness punch wounds in Wistar rats. Effects were evaluated based on wound contraction size (mm²), tensile strength, and tissue DNA, RNA, protein, hydroxyproline, and histological examination. The ointment was subsequently applied to selected clinical cases of chronic and complicated wounds, and efficacy was evaluated on the basis of scoring on granulation, epithelialization, and vascularity, as well as routine hematological investigations. Significant results (p<0.05) were observed both in the pharmacological and clinical studies.

An animal study using albino Wistar rats applied gel prepared with alcoholic and aqueous extracts of Cynodon dactylon to excision and incision wounds, which showed a significant increase in healing rate in comparison to paraffin wax (control) and povidone iodine (standard control).

Evidence strength: There is a limited human clinical component to wound healing research, though it involves only small case series evaluating topical application, not randomized controlled trials. The animal and in vitro evidence is more substantial. Wound healing represents one of the more clinically explored areas.

5.3 Antimicrobial Activity

The plant shows biological activities such as antiviral and antimicrobial properties. The plant possesses antimicrobial and antiviral activity. Multiple in vitro studies have evaluated the antibacterial activity of various extracts against human-pathogenic microorganisms. All of the investigated bacterial and fungal strains, including E. coli, B. subtilis, S. typhimurium, M. luteus, K. pneumoniae, S. aureus, P. vulgaris, and P. aeruginosa, showed sensitivity to plant extracts in in vitro testing.

Photochemical analyses have shown that C. dactylon contains flavonoids, alkaloids, glycosides, terpenoids, triterpenoid esters, saponins, tannins, resins, phytosterols, reducing sugars, carbohydrates, proteins, volatile oils, and fixed oils, and these diverse constituents are believed to contribute collectively to its broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity.

Evidence strength: Antimicrobial evidence is predominantly in vitro (disc diffusion and broth dilution methods). No adequately powered human clinical trials have been identified confirming antimicrobial efficacy in clinical infections.

5.4 Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic/Antipyretic Activity

The immunomodulatory (rasayana) and anti-inflammatory activities of Cynodon dactylon juice have been confirmed in mice and rat models. Significant reductions in the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IFN-γ and TNF-α were observed after treatment compared with concanavalin A treatment, and the antioxidant and immunomodulatory activities of the juice extract were confirmed along with its ability to reduce inflammatory cytokines.

Evidence strength: Anti-inflammatory evidence is derived entirely from preclinical animal and cell-culture models. Human clinical data are absent.

5.5 Cardiovascular and Hypolipidemic Effects

The extract of C. dactylon leaf has been declared to have antidiabetic, antioxidant, hypolipidemic, and immunomodulatory effects. The anti-atherosclerotic property of ethanolic extract of C. dactylon was investigated in experimentally induced hypercholesterolemia in rats. In this study, 36 male Wistar rats were allocated into six groups. The sham group received a high-cholesterol diet (1.50% cholesterol and 24.00% fat) and other groups received a high-cholesterol diet and ethanolic extract at low (100 mg/kg), moderate (200 mg/kg), and maximum (400 mg/kg) doses via gavage. One group received atorvastatin (10 mg/kg) as comparator. The study period for all groups was six months. Parameters including total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL-C, and HDL-C were assessed.

Treatment of STZ-induced diabetic rats with a Cynodon dactylon hydroalcoholic extract at doses of 150, 300, and 450 mg/kg orally, particularly at the maximum dose, ameliorated increased cardiobiomarkers including homocysteine and adenosine deaminase.

Evidence strength: All cardiovascular evidence is from animal models. No human clinical trial data have been identified.

5.6 Hepatoprotective Activity

There is evidence for antihyperlipidemic, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, and anti-atherosclerotic properties of this plant based on published preclinical work. The methanolic extract of Cynodon dactylon roots was tested for hepatoprotective properties against diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced liver cancer in Swiss albino mice. A weekly oral dose of 50 mg/kg of the plant extract was administered for up to 30 days following DEN treatment.

Evidence strength: Hepatoprotective effects are based on animal studies only. Human clinical evidence is absent.

5.7 Kidney Stone and Diuretic Activity

C. dactylon is a medicinal plant with antioxidative and diuretic properties, and different preparations of this plant have shown promising effects in stone disease. Fifty male Wistar rats were divided into 5 experimental groups. Four groups received ethylene glycol (1% v/v) in drinking water for 6 weeks to induce stone disease. Three doses of Cynodon dactylon aqueous decoction (12.5, 50, and 200 mg/kg body weight) were added to the drinking water. Water intake, 24-hour urine volume, MDA, total thiol concentration, and FRAP value were measured in serum and kidney tissues. A minimum dose of 200 mg/kg of C. dactylon reduced stone formation and simultaneously increased total antioxidant power of serum and preserved MDA content.

The aqueous extract of aerial parts of C. dactylon has antioxidant properties, and the rhizome's extract has diuretic and anti-lithiasis activity.

Evidence strength: Preclinical (animal) data only. No human studies confirmed.

5.8 Anticancer Activity

The minimum effective concentration of petroleum ether extract of Cynodon dactylon was non-toxic to Vero cells but toxic to HEP-2, HELA, and MCF-7 cells, with an IC50 recorded at a concentration of 0.156–0.625 mg/mL. Among these three cell lines, Cynodon dactylon showed more activity in the HEP-2 laryngeal cell line.

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) synthesized using C. dactylon showed potent anticancer activity against MCF-7 human breast cancer cells, inducing apoptosis, with an LC50 determined to be 43.34 μg/mL.

Evidence strength: Anticancer evidence is in vitro (cell-line studies) and animal (chemically induced cancer models). No human clinical trials have been conducted or identified.

5.9 Anthelmintic Activity

A study was undertaken to investigate the in vitro and in vivo anthelmintic effects of whole plant extract of C. dactylon against Hymenolepis diminuta, a zoonotic tapeworm. In vitro, plant extract was tested at 10, 20, and 40 mg/mL concentrations against adult worms. In vivo testing was done in a rat model at doses of 200, 400, and 800 mg/kg. Treatment of rats with the 800 mg/kg dose for 5 days revealed up to 77.64% reduction in eggs per gram counts and 79.00% reduction in worm counts.

Evidence strength: Rodent and in vitro data only.

5.10 Antifertility and Reproductive Effects

The objective of one study was to evaluate the antifertility activity of ether, chloroform, and ethyl alcohol extracts of the whole plant in female Wistar albino rats. Acute oral toxicity and an antifertility study were performed in female Wistar rats with two dose levels (200 and 400 mg/kg, orally). The estrogenic and progestogenic effects were further observed by investigations of vaginal cornification, hormonal levels, uterus weight, biochemical parameters, histopathology of the uterus, and deciduoma formation. Ethyl alcohol extract-treated rats exhibited maximum reduction in pregnancy (83.33%).

Evidence strength: Animal studies only. This area requires particular caution — antifertility findings in animal models underscore a relevant safety consideration (see Section 7).

5.11 Neurological Effects (Antiepileptic, Anti-Parkinsonian)

Published preclinical evidence covers antiepileptic and anti-inflammatory activities. An aqueous extract of Cynodon dactylon was evaluated for anti-Parkinson's activity in rats. The anti-Parkinsonian effect was studied against rotenone (2 mg/kg, s.c.)-induced Parkinsonism in rats.

Evidence strength: Animal models only; no human studies have been identified.

5.12 Gastrointestinal Activity (Antidiarrheal, Antiulcer)

Methanol extract at doses of 200 and 300 mg/kg exhibited considerable reduction of castor oil-induced diarrhea, significant decrease in gastrointestinal motility in a charcoal meal test, and decrease in weight of intestinal contents in enteropooling models. Flavonoids present in the plant have been identified as bioactive in the context of ulcer treatment.

Evidence strength: Animal models only.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Bermuda Grass

Previous studies have associated Cynodon dactylon with activities relevant to the central nervous system, cardiovascular system, antidiabetic effects, gastrointestinal health, antioxidant defense, immune and allergic responses, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic, anticancer, dermatological, diuretic, protective (hepatic), antimicrobial, antiparasitic, and insecticidal/repellent effects. The principal body systems for which preclinical evidence exists are summarized below:

• Metabolic/Endocrine: Blood glucose regulation, lipid metabolism, antidiabetic effects (preclinical only).
• Gastrointestinal: Antidiarrheal, antiulcer, anti-dysenteric (traditional and preclinical).
• Dermatological/Wound Healing: Hemostatic, wound closure, skin disease (traditional, some limited clinical case series).
• Urinary/Renal: Diuretic, anti-lithiasis, urinary tract infections (traditional and preclinical).
• Hepatic: Hepatoprotective against chemical-induced injury (preclinical).
• Cardiovascular: Anti-atherosclerotic, hypolipidemic, antiarrhythmic (preclinical).
• Immunological: Immunomodulatory, antiallergic, cytokine modulation (preclinical).
• Neurological: Antiepileptic, anti-Parkinsonian (preclinical, animal models).
• Antimicrobial: Antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antiparasitic (in vitro and limited in vivo).
• Oncology: Anticancer in selected cell lines (in vitro and animal models).
• Reproductive: Antifertility effects demonstrated in animal models (see safety section).

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Research

In traditional medical systems and ethnomedical practices, Cynodon dactylon is used in the form of powder, paste, or juice to treat a wide range of ailments. In Ayurveda, the fresh juice of leaves and dried powder of the whole plant is used most often.

The following dosage parameters have been stated specifically in identified studies:

• Ethanolic extract (antidiabetic, rodent): 500 mg/kg body weight per day was identified as the most effective dose, lowering blood glucose levels by 42.12% in normal animals and 43.42% in diabetic animals during fasting blood glucose and glucose tolerance testing.
• Ethanolic extract (anti-atherosclerotic, rodent): Doses used were 100 mg/kg (low), 200 mg/kg (moderate), and 400 mg/kg (maximum) via gavage in a high-cholesterol diet model over six months.
• Aqueous decoction (anti-lithiasis, rodent): Three doses of 12.5, 50, and 200 mg/kg body weight were added to drinking water of experimental groups.
• Hydroalcoholic extract (cardioprotective/antidiabetic, rodent): Doses of 150, 300, and 450 mg/kg orally were evaluated in STZ-induced diabetic rats.
• Methanolic root extract (hepatoprotective/anticancer, rodent): A weekly oral dose of 50 mg/kg was given for up to 30 days in DEN-induced liver cancer mice.
• Whole plant extract (anthelmintic, rodent): 800 mg/kg for 5 days yielded up to 77.64% reduction in parasite egg counts and 79.00% reduction in worm counts.
• Aqueous extract ointment (wound healing, clinical): A 15% w/w ointment of the extract was used topically in both an animal model and clinical cases of chronic and complicated wounds.
• Ethyl alcohol extract (antifertility, rodent): Doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg were administered orally in female Wistar rats.
• Methanol extract (antidiarrheal, rodent): Doses of 200 and 300 mg/kg were used to significantly reduce castor oil-induced diarrhea and decrease gastrointestinal motility.

No standardized dosage recommendations for human supplemental or therapeutic use have been established by any regulatory or pharmacopeial body identified in this review. All doses above are from animal research and cannot be directly applied to humans.

8. Safety Considerations

Acute Toxicity Data

Regarding toxicity effects of C. dactylon, Yadav and Nath (2017) reported that the administration of plant extracts at doses of 200–800 mg/kg in mice showed no acute toxicity effects. In an antifertility study, no toxicity with any of the extracts was found up to the dose of 2000 mg/kg body weight in female Wistar rats.

Antifertility Effects

Ethyl alcohol extract-treated rats exhibited a maximum reduction in pregnancy of 83.33% in rodent studies. This marked antifertility effect in animal models is a significant preclinical safety signal. Whether comparable effects occur in humans is unknown, but this finding warrants consideration regarding use in pregnancy or by individuals attempting conception.

Allergenic Potential (Pollen)

Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon; subfamily Chloridoideae) is an important source of seasonal aeroallergens in warm tropical and subtropical areas worldwide. Epidemiologic studies have revealed that allergies to Bermuda grass mainly affect people in warm tropical and subtropical areas, such as the southwestern United States, South Africa, and northern and central Australia. Approximately 27% of asthmatic patients in Taiwan have been reported to have a hypersensitive response to crude Bermuda grass pollen extract.

Cyn d 1, the major allergen of Bermuda grass pollen (BGP), is the most abundant protein component of the pollen, comprising 15–20% of crude pollen extract, and dominates the human IgE response with 87% of individuals allergic to BGP showing a positive reaction to this 32 kDa protein.

Cynodon dactylon pollen, also known as Bermuda grass pollen, is a standardized grass pollen extract used for the diagnosis and treatment of allergic disease to grass pollen. Standardized grass pollen extracts have potency designations of 10,000 BAU/mL and 100,000 BAU/mL, except Bermuda grass which is standardized at 10,000 BAU/mL only. This clinical allergenicity is specific to the pollen of C. dactylon and is distinct from the use of its vegetative parts (leaves, stems, rhizomes) as a medicinal preparation, although individuals with known grass pollen allergy should be aware of this property.

Alkaloid Toxicity and Allergenic Compounds in Plant Extracts

In certain ecological contexts, reports of alkaloid toxicity and allergenic potential from C. dactylon plant constituents have been documented.

Cytotoxicity at High In Vitro Concentrations

Effective concentrations for proliferation of spleen cells after treatment with certain extracts were 0.45–62.5 μg/mL without cell death, but ECs for acetone and hydroalcohol extracts of 0.45–1.95 μg/mL resulted in cytotoxicity. These in vitro cytotoxicity findings indicate that concentration-dependent cytotoxic effects exist with certain solvent extracts, relevant to formulation and extract standardization.

Evidence Gaps and Research Needs

The phytochemical diversity of Cynodon dactylon supports its broad-spectrum pharmacological activity, but standardized extraction, mechanistic clarification, and clinical validation should be given top priority in future research to create secure and efficient therapeutic uses. Further research and clinical studies are needed to achieve the plant's full potential in the domain of drug development.

References

• Cynodon dactylon — A Systemic Review of Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry and Pharmacology (ResearchGate, 2024)
• Exploring the Pharmacological and Phytochemical Properties of Cynodon dactylon — IJSDR, 2025
• Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.: A Medicinal Grass of India (ResearchGate, 2024)
• Cynodon dactylon: A Comprehensive Review — IJSRT Journal
• Cynodon dactylon — Overview, ScienceDirect Topics
• Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Effects of Cynodon dactylon — A Review (IOSR Journal of Pharmacy, 2016)
• Phytomedicinal Properties of Cynodon dactylon (durva) in its Traditional Preparation and Extracts (Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine, ScienceDirect, 2022)
• Cynodon dactylon — Crop Fact Sheet, Purdue University Horticulture
• Phytochemical and Pharmacological Review of Cynodon dactylon Grass with its Potential Effects (ResearchGate, 2024)
• Phytochemical Analysis and Antimicrobial/Antioxidant Activity of Cynodon dactylon Rhizome Methanolic Extract (Journal of Food Quality, Wiley, 2020)
• Evidence-based Critical Evaluation of Glycemic Potential of Cynodon dactylon (PMC/eCAM, 2008)
• Curative Effect of Cynodon dactylon Against STZ-Induced Hepatic Injury in Diabetic Rats (PMC, 2012)
• Anti-atherosclerotic Effect of Cynodon dactylon Extract on Experimentally Induced Hypercholesterolemia in Rats (PMC, 2017)
• Kidney Stone Formation and Antioxidant Effects of Cynodon dactylon Decoction in Male Wistar Rats (PMC, 2017)
• Angiogenic Effect of the Aqueous Extract of Cynodon dactylon on Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells and Granulation Tissue in Rat (PMC, 2015)
• Comparative and Mixture Effect of Cynodon dactylon, Electromagnetic Field and Insulin on Diabetic Mouse (PMC, 2014)
• Phytochemical Analysis and Antifertility Potential of Cynodon dactylon in Female Wistar Rats (PMC, 2022)
• Evaluation of Cynodon dactylon for Wound Healing Activity (Journal of Ethnopharmacology, ScienceDirect, 2016)
• Anthelmintic Effects and Toxicity of Cynodon dactylon in Rodent Models (ResearchGate, 2017)
• Mapping of IgE-binding Regions on Recombinant Cyn d 1, a Major Allergen from Bermuda Grass Pollen (PMC, 2009)
• Cynodon dactylon Pollen — DrugBank
• Allergenic Extracts, Grass Pollen: Prescribing Information — Drugs.com
• Phytochemical and Pharmacological Review of Cynodon dactylon Grass with its Potential Effects — Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences, 2025