Autumn olive

Autumn Olive (Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Description

1.1 Scientific Classification and Common Names

Elaeagnus umbellata, commonly known as autumn olive, is considered a medicinal plant of high value and belongs to the Elaeagnaceae family. It is also known by the common names autumnberry, autumn elaeagnus, Japanese silverberry, and spreading oleaster. The species was formally described and named by the Swedish-Finnish botanist Carl Peter Thunberg, hence the author citation Thunb. The recognized synonym Elaeagnus umbellata var. parvifolia (Wall. ex Royle) C.K. Schneid. refers to a closely related variety sharing the same geographic range.

1.2 Natural Source and Geographic Distribution

Autumn olive is one of the wild spiny branched shrubs and is a plant in the Elaeagnaceae family that is native to Asia. Elaeagnus umbellata is native to China and Japan, and was introduced into North America in 1830, after which it has been widely planted for wildlife habitat, mine reclamation, and shelterbelts. E. umbellata is found at 1,200–2,100 m above mean sea level and grows at varying temperatures, tolerating a wide pH range of 5.5–9.5.

In North America, autumn olive occurs throughout the eastern United States, from Maine west to Wisconsin, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Arkansas, and Louisiana, and south into Florida. Introduced in 1830 as an ornamental plant that could provide habitat and food to wildlife, autumn olive was widely planted by the Soil Conservation Service as erosion control near roads and on ridges. The U.S. Forest Service Region 8 (Southern Region) lists autumn olive as a category 1 weed — an exotic plant species known to be invasive and persistent throughout all or most of its range within the Southern Region, capable of spreading into and persisting in native plant communities and displacing native plant species.

1.3 Botanical Morphology

Autumn olive is a nitrogen-fixing deciduous shrub or small tree growing up to 4.5 m (14 ft) at a medium growth rate. It can grow in nutritionally poor soil and can tolerate drought and maritime exposure. Autumn olive berries (AOBs) mature between September and November to an edible dark red color, and are sweet, sour, and juicy. All species in the Elaeagnaceae family are nitrogen fixers, having a symbiotic relationship with soil bacteria, making them excellent companion plants.

1.4 Common Preparations and Forms

The berries (technically pseudodrupes) constitute the primary material used as a food and dietary supplement. The fruit is used as a primary ingredient in jams, jellies, preserves, fruit leather, sauces, and syrups, and as a base for juices, concentrates, beverages, and wine. Fruit purees and concentrates are produced for flavoring and formulation in non-alcoholic and fermented beverages. In research contexts, preparations include crude methanolic, ethanolic, aqueous, acetone, and chloroform extracts of berries and leaves; essential oils extracted from the fruit by hydro-distillation; and isolated purified compounds (e.g., catechin, morin, chlorogenic acid, ellagic acid). In East Asian folk practice, the plant is used as a remedy for cough and cold symptoms, most commonly prepared as an infusion or decoction of the leaves.

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2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 East Asian Traditional Medicine

Autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata) is a deciduous shrub native to Asia, long celebrated for its nutritional and medicinal applications. Historically, autumn olive fruit and leaves have been utilized in traditional remedies throughout East Asia, particularly in China, Korea, and Japan. Folk medicine has prized the berries for their rich content of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, especially lycopene. Traditional healers have prepared autumn olive berries as a tonic to promote overall vitality, relieve fatigue, and aid digestion. Decoctions of the leaves have been used to address coughs, asthma, and respiratory discomfort. In some cultures, poultices made from the leaves have been applied to wounds to support healing, due to the plant's reputed anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties.

2.2 South Asian and Himalayan Ethnomedicine

Elaeagnus umbellata (also referred to as autumn olive) exhibits high medicinal value, with a widespread distribution across the Pir Panjal region of the Himalayas. Different parts of E. umbellata have been used in folk medicine as anti-inflammatory, muscle relaxant, antipyretic, analgesic, astringent, antiulcer, antidiabetic, anti-diarrheal, as a tonic to cure coughs and pulmonary complications. Berries, flowers, leaves, and roots of this species have been employed for the treatment of asthma, pulmonary affections, or myocardial infarction in folk uses.

2.3 Introduction and Use in North America

Originally hailing from Eastern Asia and Afghanistan, the plant found its way to the United States in the 1800s. Initially introduced as an ornamental plant and for purposes like erosion control and wildlife habitat creation, it was later realized to be an invasive species. This realization led to its ban in several states. In North America, interest in the plant has grown from an agronomic and nutraceutical standpoint, driven in particular by the discovery of its exceptional lycopene content.

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3. Key Phytochemical Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Overview of Phytochemical Fingerprint

The phytochemical fingerprint of autumn olive pseudodrupes revealed the presence of 23 bioactive compounds. Polyphenols (65.56%) were the largest class, followed by monoterpenes (27.40%) and vitamin C (7.04%). Anthocyanins were the most represented compounds among polyphenols (71.9%). The phytochemical fingerprint of the berries revealed them to have a high content of polyphenols, with a major proportion of anthocyanins, followed by monoterpenes and vitamin C. Extract of fruits helps in regulating the digestion and absorption of glucose and reduces inflammation and oxidative stress.

3.2 Carotenoids — Lycopene and Related Compounds

The most distinctive phytochemical feature of autumn olive berries is their extraordinary lycopene content. Analysis of the pigment in fruit of five cultivars and six naturalized plants showed that the berries contain lycopene, α-cryptoxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, β-carotene, lutein, phytoene, and phytofluene. The lycopene content per 100 g ranged from 15 to 54 mg in fresh fruit from naturalized plants and from 17 to 48 mg in the four cultivars with red-pigmented fruit. A cultivar with yellow fruit had only 0.47 mg/100 g fresh fruit. In contrast, fresh tomato fruit, the major dietary source of lycopene, has a lycopene content per 100 g of approximately 3 mg. Lycopene is the main carotenoid in ripe red-pigmented E. umbellata fruit and, according to Fordham (2001), constitutes 72–82% of total carotenoids in these fruits. Additional studies confirmed this range: one study determined the content of lycopene in the fruits of Elaeagnus umbellata at 35.25–60.21 mg/100 g, in specimens common at different heights above sea level in Western Georgia. In 2001, researchers published evidence that the red berries of autumn olive have a high carotenoid content, and particularly high levels of lycopene (30–70 mg/100g). Lycopene has powerful antioxidant properties, making it of interest for nutraceutical use, and also provides natural red color for food use.

Autumn olive berries are known to contain a large amount of catechins, lutein, gallic acid, caffeic acid, phytoene, phytofluene, β-cryptoxanthin, β-carotene, and α-cryptoxanthin.

3.3 Polyphenols and Flavonoids

The berries extract of E. umbellata is a rich source of polyphenols, flavonols, flavones, proanthocyanidins, anthocyanidins, flavonoids, and glycosides with potential antioxidant and enzyme inhibitory activities. The fruits of this plant are rich in phenolic acids (cinnamic acid and benzoic acid) and flavonoids (epigallocatechin gallate, myricetin). Furthermore, Elaeagnus fruits also contain a number of bioactive compounds like lutein, phytofluene, phytoene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, and α-cryptoxanthin. Previously evaluated compounds include rutin, epigallocatechin gallate, epigallocatechin, quercetin, morin, ellagic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, and pyrogallol.

HPLC analysis confirmed that catechin is the main phenolic compound of autumn olive berries; its content was 5.95 times higher in freeze-dried preparations than in spray-dried ones.

3.4 Vitamins and Minerals

The E. umbellata fruit/berry is an excellent source of vitamins A, C, and E, minerals, flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids, terpenoids, saponins, and essential fatty acids. Fruits from Poland were characterized by a high vitamin E content (alpha-tocopherol) of 10.17 mg/100 g, compared to 1.16–2.82 mg/100 g wet matter marked in a USA study.

3.5 Fatty Acids

Analysis of the fatty acid composition of E. umbellata showed that unsaturated fatty acids account for as much as 88.67% of total fat, and essential polyunsaturated fatty acids exceed 50% of total fat.

3.6 Essential Oil Constituents

About 68 compounds were identified by GC-MS analysis of the essential oil extracted from E. umbellata fruit. Active antioxidant, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective compounds identified in the fruit's essential oil via GC-MS include octadecanoic acid, cis-cis-9,12-octadecadienoic acid (linoleic acid), α-linolenic acid, phytol, humulene epoxide, p-vinylguaiacol, caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, and decanoic acid.

3.7 Isolated Bioactive Compounds from Berry Extract

The active constituents of the chloroform extract derived from E. umbellata berries were isolated by silica gel column chromatography and identified as morin, phloroglucinol, and 1-hexylbenzene through various spectroscopic techniques. Phytochemicals such as eugenol, palmitic acid, and methyl palmitate exhibit potent antibacterial activity against a broad range of disease-causing agents. The phytosterols upholding anticoagulant activity serve the purpose of causing a decrease in angina and blood cholesterol levels.

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4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Antioxidant Activity

Evidence type: In vitro and in vivo animal studies; no human clinical trials.

The antioxidant capacity of autumn olive berries (20.031 ± 1.214 mmol Fe²⁺/kg) was similar to that recorded for other small fruits with proven health-promoting properties. The present work underlined the potential of E. umbellata as a source of health-promoting bioactive compounds. The extracted essential oil exhibited fairly high free radical scavenging activities against DPPH and ABTS radicals with IC₅₀ values of 70 and 105 μg/mL respectively (for ascorbic acid, used as standard, the IC₅₀ values were 32 and 29 μg/mL, respectively). The total phenolic content and DPPH radical scavenging abilities of freeze-dried autumn olive berries (FAOBs) or spray-dried autumn olive berries (SAOBs) were examined, and FAOBs exhibited better antioxidant activity. Both methanolic leaf and bark extracts demonstrated significant antioxidant activity, with the leaf extract showing stronger activity than the bark extract.

Limitations: All published antioxidant studies are in vitro or in animal models. No randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or controlled human studies examining antioxidant endpoints in humans have been published in the indexed literature.

4.2 Antidiabetic and Glucose-Regulating Activity

Evidence type: In vitro enzyme inhibition, animal studies, and in silico modeling; no human clinical trials.

The antioxidant potential of crude extract and subfractions of E. umbellata fruit were determined using DPPH and ABTS assays. The enzyme inhibitory potentials of extracts against α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes were also determined. The in vivo anti-hyperglycemic effects of the extract in STZ-induced type 2 diabetes were determined using Sprague Dawley adult rats. The methanolic extract and subfractions of E. umbellata have significant antidiabetic activity against α-glucosidase and α-amylase enzymes in STZ-induced diabetes mellitus, supported by docking analysis. In vivo, morin at tested doses of 2, 10, 15, 30, and 50 mg/kg body weight significantly restored alterations in the levels of fasting blood glucose and body weight loss, along with a significant decrease in levels of cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein, and HbA1c level, and significantly increased high-density lipoprotein in diabetic rats. Its protective and regenerative effect on pancreatic β-cells was attributed to activation of β-cell signaling and restoration of histopathological alterations, which led to improved glucose and lipid metabolism. Phytochemicals in autumn olive berries, and particularly catechins, have been reported to exhibit antidiabetic effects by regulating glucose levels. GC-MS analysis followed by in silico study of bioactive constituents explored their role in inhibiting advanced glycation end-products (RAGEs) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptors.

Limitations: Accurate therapeutic dosages for treating various diseases are yet to be determined. Random human clinical trials are needed to find safe and effective doses of morin for the treatment of acute and chronic diabetes. Additionally, it is difficult for nutritionists to recommend morin or morin-rich foods at this point, as little is known about their interactions with other foods and about the dose-response and safety profile when consumed with other ingredients.

4.3 Antimicrobial Activity

Evidence type: In vitro studies; no human clinical trials.

Studies report the antibacterial activity of Elaeagnus umbellata. Most of the extracts displayed broad-spectrum activity, since gram-positive bacteria including S. aureus and B. subtilis, and gram-negative bacteria including E. coli and P. aeruginosa, were inhibited. These preliminary findings may provide the basis for traditional use of this plant in the treatment of infectious diseases. The isolated compound morin exhibited strong in vitro antiradical potential along with prominent antibacterial activities against selected bacterial strains including Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella typhi, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Proteus mirabilis. Morin exhibited relatively higher antibacterial activity against gram-positive than gram-negative bacterial strains. The higher sensitivity of gram-positive bacterial strains compared to gram-negative bacteria could be ascribed to their variations in cell membrane constituents. The aqueous extract from the berry strongly inhibited the growth of E. coli and S. aureus whereas it exhibited a very small zone of inhibition against B. subtilis. Multi-drug-resistant P. aeruginosa was found completely resistant to the aqueous extract. The acetone extract of the berry showed good activity against P. aeruginosa.

Limitations: All antimicrobial data are from in vitro assays (minimum inhibitory concentration and zone of inhibition tests). No in vivo or clinical infection studies have been published.

4.4 Neuroprotective and Anticholinesterase Activity

Evidence type: In vitro and animal studies only; no human clinical trials.

Different parts of E. umbellata have been used in folk medicine as anti-inflammatory, muscle relaxant, antipyretic, analgesic, astringent, antiulcer, antidiabetic, and anti-diarrheal agents. Several studies have shown that regular consumption of polyphenol-rich berry fruits is associated with delayed Alzheimer's disease and other brain-related disorders, because of their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiproliferative properties. The fruit essential oil demonstrated 85.44, 78.07, 71.86, 67.59, 54.37, and 47.37% AChE inhibition at concentrations of 1000, 500, 250, 125, 62.5, and 31.05 μg/mL respectively. The acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase inhibition potential shown by the essential oil sample of E. umbellata were comparable with that of positive control galantamine. Chlorogenic acid and ellagic acid showed higher Gold score values with highest cholinesterase inhibitory activities, while gallic acid and phloroglucinol showed weaker inhibitory activity. In a preclinical mouse study, the chlorohexane fraction extract and isolated compound chlorogenic acid (CGA) were further evaluated for learning and memory in normal and scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment in mice. Ext (200 mg/kg) and isolated compound CGA at 10 and 30 mg/kg body weight were tested alongside standard drug donepezil (2 mg/kg body weight).

Limitations: The experimental evidence supporting the anti-amnesic effect is limited. All neuroprotective and anticholinesterase data remain at the preclinical (in vitro and rodent) stage.

4.5 Hepatoprotective Activity

Evidence type: In vivo animal model only; no human clinical trials.

Elaeagnus umbellata is considered a medicinal plant of high value and belongs to the Elaeagnaceae family. It exhibits anti-ulcer, antimutagenic, antimicrobial, and neuroprotective properties. The leaves of E. umbellata reportedly have pharmacological activities, including antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects. However, no in vivo studies had previously evaluated this plant's hepatoprotective potential. A subsequent study determined the hepatoprotective potential of E. umbellata using an in vivo model. Fourteen compounds were identified in the crude methanolic extract (Met-Ext) of E. umbellata leaves. Total phenolic and total flavonoid contents were assessed, and the extract was tested for hepatoprotective potential against carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced liver injury. Fruits serve as an excellent source of vitamins, minerals, and other essential compounds that exhibit hypolipidemic, hepatoprotective, and nephroprotective effects (as reviewed in the literature, based on animal studies).

Limitations: Hepatoprotective evidence derives exclusively from animal models (CCl₄-induced injury). Clinical validation in humans is absent.

4.6 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Evidence type: In vitro cell studies; no human clinical trials.

Elaeagnus umbellata is a plant commonly used in traditional Asian medicine for its many health benefits and strong antioxidative activity. Its therapeutic potential is believed to be connected to its effect on fibroblasts. One study investigated the defense of E. umbellata methanol-acetone extract (EUE) against hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced fibroblast damage. Because the main biologically active compounds are water-insoluble, the effects of methanol-acetone fruit extracts were evaluated using liquid chromatography (for ascorbic acid and beta-carotene) and spectrophotometry (for lycopene and total phenolics). The extract's antioxidative activity was measured using DPPH radical inhibition, and EUE's effect on human fibroblasts was also evaluated, assessing metabolic activity and apoptosis of HFFF-2 fibroblasts using the XTT test and flow cytometry. Lycopene, a well-known antioxidant found in abundance in the edible fruits of Elaeagnus species, as well as linoleic acid and other phenolic acids (benzoic acid, cinnamic acid) and flavonoids (epigallocatechin gallate, myricetin), are considered to mediate multiple health benefits including wound healing, cancer prevention, and pain alleviation.

4.7 Antiangiogenic and Anticancer Potential

Evidence type: In vitro assay (CAM assay), molecular docking, and in silico studies only; no human clinical trials.

Literature reports that the substances catechin, catechin hydrate, morin, quercetin, and rutin have anticancer properties. The extract/fractions of E. umbellata have demonstrated antiangiogenic activity, which could be attributed to the presence of these phytochemicals. This study had various limitations: it used only a simple antiangiogenic model via CAM (chorioallantoic membrane) assay and molecular docking to demonstrate interactions of phytochemicals with the active site of VEGFR-2. To confirm E. umbellata's antiangiogenic efficacy, more advanced in vivo and in vitro experimental models should be adopted. The specific phytochemicals must also be extracted, purified, and assessed against VEGFR-2 and cell signaling pathways. Ito et al. identified elaeagnatins A–G, C-glucosidic ellagitannins, from Elaeagnus umbellata, compounds of interest for cancer chemoprevention.

Limitations: Anticancer and antiangiogenic data are at the earliest stages — limited to in vitro cell-free or simple tissue-based assays and computational modeling. No in vivo tumor studies or human trials exist for autumn olive specifically.

4.8 Lipid Metabolism and Aging (Preclinical Model)

Evidence type: In vivo model organism (Caenorhabditis elegans); no human clinical trials.

One study evaluated the positive effects of autumn olive berry extract on delaying aging by improving lipid metabolism in middle-aged Caenorhabditis elegans that had become obese due to a high-glucose diet. Freeze-dried autumn olive berries inhibited lipid accumulation in both young adult and middle-aged groups in a concentration-dependent manner under both normal and 2% glucose conditions. They also inhibited ROS accumulation in a concentration-dependent manner in the middle-aged worms. Additionally, freeze-dried AOBs increased body bending and egg production in middle-aged worms.

Limitations: C. elegans is a nematode model organism; findings are highly preliminary and cannot be directly extrapolated to human physiology. There are few studies on the anti-obesity effects of autumn olive berries related to lipid metabolism.

4.9 Chemopreventive and Xenobiotic Metabolism

Evidence type: In vivo mouse model only.

One study investigated the potential chemopreventive activities of E. umbellata fruit aqueous (EUFA) and leaf aqueous (EULA) extracts, focusing on the modulatory influence of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes (XMEs), antioxidant enzymes, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase activity, lipid peroxidation, and sulfhydryl groups in the hepatic and extrahepatic organs of Swiss albino mice. Doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg body weight were given orally for 14 days.

Limitations: Findings are confined to a single mouse study. No human evidence exists for chemopreventive endpoints.

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5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Autumn Olive

Based on the existing preclinical and in vitro literature, autumn olive has been investigated in connection with the following body systems and health areas:

• Metabolic/Endocrine System: Blood glucose regulation, insulin sensitivity, lipid metabolism, and antidiabetic activity via inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes.
• Cardiovascular System: Phytosterols upholding anticoagulant activity serve the purpose of causing a decrease in angina and blood cholesterol levels. Lycopene is also associated in the wider literature with cardiovascular protection.
• Hepatic System (Liver): Hepatoprotective effects observed in CCl₄-induced animal models, with modulation of hepatic enzymes. Morin also effectively ameliorated hepatic enzymes and renal functions like serum creatinine in diabetic rats.
• Nervous System: Anticholinesterase activity of isolated compounds, and preclinical anti-amnesic effects in scopolamine-challenged mice.
• Immune/Inflammatory System: Broad-spectrum in vitro anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects.
• Respiratory System: Berries, flowers, leaves, and roots have been employed for the treatment of asthma and pulmonary affections in folk uses.
• Gastrointestinal System: Traditional use as an antiulcer, anti-diarrheal, and digestive tonic; in vitro evidence of enzyme inhibition modulating glucose absorption.
• Oncology (Very Preliminary): In vitro antiangiogenic and antiproliferative activity of isolated polyphenols against selected cancer-related targets.

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6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

No established therapeutic dosages exist for human use of autumn olive or its preparations as a dietary supplement. The following represent dosages used in published research studies, reported here strictly as stated in those sources:

• Morin (isolated from berry chloroform extract), in vivo antidiabetic (rat): In vivo morin at tested doses of 2, 10, 15, 30, and 50 mg/kg body weight significantly restored alterations in fasting blood glucose levels and body weight loss in diabetic rats.
• Chlorogenic acid (CGA), neuroprotective (mouse): Isolated compound CGA at 10 and 30 mg/kg body weight and the standard drug donepezil at 2 mg/kg body weight were the tested groups in the scopolamine-impaired memory model.
• Fruit aqueous extracts, chemopreventive (mouse): Fruit aqueous and leaf aqueous extracts at 50 and 100 mg/kg body weight were given orally for 14 days in Swiss albino mice.
• Essential oil, antioxidant/anticholinesterase (in vitro): The essential oil demonstrated AChE inhibition across concentrations of 31.05 to 1000 μg/mL.
• Freeze-dried berry extract, lipid metabolism (C. elegans): Concentration-dependent effects were observed in worm models, though specific concentrations for the most relevant effects were not stated in available abstracts.

Accurate therapeutic dosages for treating various diseases are yet to be determined. Random human clinical trials are needed to find safe and effective doses of autumn olive preparations for any health indication.

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7. Safety Considerations and Notable Interactions

7.1 General Safety Profile

No formal toxicological studies, safety pharmacology assessments, or human adverse event reports for autumn olive extracts or isolated compounds specifically have been published in the indexed peer-reviewed literature that is publicly available. No official regulatory monograph (e.g., WHO, European Medicines Agency, German Commission E) has been issued for E. umbellata as a medicinal plant or dietary supplement.

7.2 Interactions with Conventional Drugs and Foods

It is difficult for nutritionists to recommend morin or morin-rich foods at this point, as little is known about their interactions with other foods and about the dose-response and safety profile when consumed with other ingredients or food components.

The presence of phytosterols with reported anticoagulant activity (as noted by multiple research teams) raises the theoretical possibility of additive effects with antiplatelet or anticoagulant medications such as warfarin. However, no pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic drug interaction studies have been published for autumn olive preparations specifically.

7.3 Polyphenol-Mediated Enzyme Interactions

Studies on the impacts of E. umbellata fruit and leaf aqueous extracts examined modulation of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes, including cytochrome P450, in mouse hepatic and extrahepatic organs. Modulation of cytochrome P450 enzymes in animal models suggests a theoretical potential for herb-drug interactions, though no clinical data are available.

7.4 Regulatory and Ecological Status

The U.S. Forest Service Region 8 (Southern Region) lists autumn olive as a category 1 invasive weed; the introduction of such species is prohibited on National Forest System Lands. This ecological status does not constitute a food safety concern per se, but reflects legal restrictions on cultivation and trade in certain U.S. states that could affect the availability of raw material. Individuals or entities considering collection or commercial use of this plant should verify local and state regulations, as the sale, trade, or cultivation of E. umbellata is restricted or prohibited in several states.

7.5 Absence of Human Safety Data

The entire body of pharmacological evidence for autumn olive remains at the in vitro and animal preclinical stage. The present state of knowledge highlights the importance of E. umbellata in traditional medicinal practices and summarizes the knowledge of its bioactive constituents and biological activities, but further work is required toward understanding its role in the development of efficient drug regimens for use in the treatment of different diseases. The lack of human data means that benefit-risk characterization at any dosage in humans is currently not possible.

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References

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