Arugula

Other Names

achnefackerraukeai'afeinai'shaarucaassubagletberza orugabhutaghnabimbatabou kahliBrassica erucaBrassica erucoidesBrassica vesicariacharacolewortdaradharshadjerdjirduaduaneihukanerba rochettaerucaEruca erucaEruca sativaEruca vesicariaEruca vesicaria subsp. sativaEruca vesicaria var. sativaerugaeuzomongarden rocketgargeergargirgerygharghirgrahagnahorfizginjamarguillojambajambehjambehojambhojamniajarjeerjarjirjirjīrjirjirkadambakadambakakerkaskibana suzushirolahilalulambamandaoMediterranean saladmulaiolraukeorothorugaoruga blancaoruga comunoruga vejigosapiao erh ts'airabano silvestrerajakshavakarajikarakshitaphalaRaphanus erucarocketrocket saladrokaroquetaroquetteroquette des jardinsroquette vraieroukarucaruchetaruchettaruchtettarucolarucolirúcularugularugulasrukesalad rocketsarshapasenfraukeseohasetasarishashiltamshwetsurshasidhartasuffed shorshitantubhatantukataratara mirataramirathorfeltirativuratorituvari

Synopsis

Arugula (Eruca sativa Mill.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Nomenclature

Eruca sativa (E. sativa), commonly known as arugula, salad arugula, or simply arugula, is an annual plant species belonging to the Brassicaceae family. Its botanical synonyms include Eruca vesicaria, Brassica eruca L., and Brassica erucoides. Species belonging to the genus Eruca and Diplotaxis are considered arugula, with Eruca sativa being the most widely consumed type.

E. sativa is sometimes referred to as "cultivated" rocket, "annual" rocket, "true" rocket, arugula, roquette, "white pepper," or taramira. In Greek, it is referred to as "Euzomon," a name signifying "good broth," highlighting its flavorful characteristics. The Latin name eruca is thought to mean "caterpillar"; its diminutive in Italian is rucola and ruchetta, leading to the French roquette and English rocket; the Southern Italian version, arugula, was subsequently adopted in America. In Ayurvedic tradition it carries the Sanskrit name Tuvari, and is called Jarjeer in Arabic.

The distribution of arugula is mainly in southern Europe, northern Africa, Iran, Syria, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India. The plant grows low to the ground with lobed, deeply notched leaves and produces small white or yellowish flowers when it bolts in warm weather. Arugula grows to a height of 20–100 centimeters.

Common Forms and Preparations

The leaves and shoots are commonly incorporated into salads for their spicy and pungent flavor, cooked with meat, and processed into pesto.
In Italy, arugula is used in pizza toppings, pasta, and as seasoning for meat and fish.
The oil produced from arugula seeds, known as Taramira oil, contains erucic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and saturated fatty acids.
E. sativa seed oil, commonly known as taramira or jamba oil in Central Asia, is also used for massages, hair treatments, and as a traditional anti-influenza medication.
The characteristic phytochemicals may be readily destroyed by heat treatment, and it is therefore recommended to eat arugula raw or slightly processed.
Arugula is also commercially available in concentrated extract capsule forms, which have been used in clinical and pharmacological research.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ancient Mediterranean and Roman Use

Arugula has been widely spread since Roman times in the Mediterranean region and is currently distributed globally. The ancient Romans knew it as "eruca" and grew it widely as both a food and a medicinal herb; they considered it a stimulant and an aphrodisiac, and it appeared frequently in Roman cooking and folk medicine. Pliny the Elder wrote about it in Historia Naturalis, noting its use as both a food and an aphrodisiac; the plant was often combined with nasturtium for its stimulating properties. In addition to noting its aphrodisiac use, Pliny documented another application: as an anesthetic.

In ancient Rome, arugula was often dedicated to Priapus, the god of fertility, and grew abundantly around his temples and shrines. In ancient Rome, arugula was considered an aphrodisiac and was forbidden from being grown in the monastic gardens of the Roman Catholic Church. The leaves formed part of a first-century Roman salad that featured other vegetables and herbs still in use today, including romaine and lavender.

Ancient Egypt and the Near East

In ancient Rome and Egypt, the consumption of arugula leaves and seeds was associated with aphrodisiac properties. Arugula had enjoyed a long history as a culinary item and aphrodisiac in the ancient Near East and Rome, and ancient recipes from across the Mediterranean world make use of the plant. Across the broader Mediterranean area, arugula found its way into soups, stews, and other dishes; contemporary writers noted that the plant was frequently consumed in Egypt and the Levant.

Medieval Arab and Unani Medicine

Arab doctors of the medieval era recommended the consumption of arugula seeds with honey as a remedy against sexual impotency. Arugula (Tukhme Jirjeer) has been valued for centuries in the Unani system of medicine, where it is prescribed for a wide range of conditions related to the digestive, urinary, reproductive, and integumentary systems. In this context, the leaves are employed in traditional medicine for their astringent, diuretic, digestive, emollient, tonic, depurative, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant, and antimicrobial properties. In Arabian countries, it is a traditional practice to use the seeds and tender leaves to enhance sexual desire, deeming them aphrodisiacs.

Ethnobotanically, the plant has been incorporated into various forms of traditional medicinal practice, including anti-inflammatory, depurative, diuretic, digestive, aphrodisiac, and rubefacient applications.

Medieval Europe and the Renaissance

Beyond its romantic associations, arugula served as a common medicinal herb throughout the Middle Ages; monastery gardens frequently cultivated it for its digestive properties. Arab physicians documented its use in traditional healing practices, while medieval European herbalists prescribed it for various inflammatory conditions. During the Renaissance, arugula gained renewed popularity among European nobility, who valued both its distinctive taste and supposed aphrodisiac effects.

After spreading through Europe during the early Middle Ages, arugula was eventually introduced to the New World by European immigrants. In the 1990s, it experienced a revival in popularity in the United States, becoming a staple in both home gardens and gourmet dishes worldwide.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Glucosinolates

It is widely accepted that the main glucosinolate (GSL) constituents of arugula are glucosativin, DMB (dimeric 4-mercaptobutyl), glucoraphanin, and glucoerucin. Different plant organs store different phytochemicals; seeds contain glucoraphanin (5.6 ± 0.2%) and glucoerucin (94.4 ± 0.2%), whereas 4-mercaptobutyl glucosinolate is found primarily in the leaves (51.6 ± 3.0%) and root (3.8 ± 0.4%) but is limited in seeds. Other common, but typically minor GSL constituents include glucoalyssin, progoitrin, 4-hydroxyglucobrassicin, diglucothiobeinin, glucorucolamine, and 4-methoxyglucobrassicin.

Hydrolysis products of glucosativin and glucoerucin contribute to the pungency and flavor in arugula. When plant tissue is damaged by chopping or chewing, the enzyme myrosinase is released and hydrolyzes glucosinolates to produce bioactive isothiocyanates (ITCs) and other products.

Isothiocyanates: Erucin and Sulforaphane

Isothiocyanates including sulforaphane and erucin are believed to be responsible for the cancer-preventive activity associated with cruciferous vegetable consumption. Erucin [1-isothiocyanato-4-(methylthio)butane], which is metabolically and structurally related to sulforaphane, is present in large quantities in arugula. Erucin (ER) is a reduced analogue of sulforaphane and is generated by enzymatic hydrolysis of glucoerucin, a glucosinolate found in high concentrations in rocket salads.

Flavonoids and Polyphenols

In arugula leaves, kaempferol and its derivatives are the main flavonoids, while glucosativin is the main glucosinolate. Other key flavonoids include quercetin and isorhamnetin glycosides, which act as antioxidants. Additionally, four new kaempferol glycosides have recently been isolated from E. sativa leaves.

Vitamins and Minerals

Arugula is especially rich in phytonutrients (glucosinolates and carotenoids), vitamin K, and vitamin B9 (folate). Per 100 g, arugula provides 109 µg of Vitamin K (90% of DV), 119 µg of Vitamin A (13% of DV), and approximately 25 calories, with 2.58 g protein and 2.05 g net carbohydrates, according to USDA data. Among minerals, arugula provides calcium, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sodium.

Carotenoids and Other Compounds

Arugula is rich in bioactive compounds with chemoprotective properties, including polyphenols, flavonoids, fiber, folate, vitamins C and A, glucosinolates, and isothiocyanates. The presence of multiple bioactive compounds such as glucosinolates, flavonoids, carotenoids, phenolic acids, and terpenoids is thought to account for its anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory properties.

Seed Oil Composition

Seeds of arugula are known to possess a high content of oil, protein, and glucosinolate. The constituents of Taramira oil are erucic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and saturated fatty acids.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Antioxidant Activity

Key phytochemical components can scavenge free radicals, reduce lipid peroxidation, and have anticancer effects by activating apoptosis in cancer cells. Among newly isolated kaempferol glycosides from arugula leaves, one compound (compound 2) exhibited potent antioxidant activity in a DPPH assay, significantly reduced cellular ROS levels in H9c2 cardiomyocytes under hypoxia/reoxygenation conditions, and effectively decreased apoptotic cell death.

Cancer-Related Mechanisms

Several mechanisms are thought to play a role in the cancer-preventive activities of isothiocyanates, including inhibition of Phase I carcinogen-activating enzymes, induction of Phase II carcinogen detoxification enzymes, inhibition of cancer cell proliferation by cell cycle arrest at G₂/M, and removal of premalignant and malignant cells through the induction of apoptosis.

Nitrate–Nitric Oxide Pathway

The importance of the L-arginine/NO pathway in cardiovascular health is well-established, with endogenous NO production by endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) playing a pivotal role in regulating vascular tone and blood pressure. With NO production critical in helping maintain healthy vascular homeostasis, reduced endogenous NO production is involved in the pathogenesis of hypertensive disorders. Dietary nitrates present in arugula are reduced to nitrite in the oral cavity by commensal bacteria and further reduced to nitric oxide in the circulation, providing a pathway to vasodilation independent of eNOS.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Cardiovascular Health and Blood Pressure

Research has identified a current need for dedicated studies on arugula (rucola, roquette, rocket) and its effects on vascular health. The existing evidence comes largely from studies on dietary nitrates and on green leafy cruciferous vegetables as a class, with arugula included as a representative high-nitrate food.

One investigation assessed whether consumption of arugula extract would produce beneficial effects on metabolites of nitric oxide and cardiovascular-related measures, also aiming to identify differences between two styles of consuming the capsule (chewing vs. swallowing) due to the influence of the oral microbiome and nitrate degradation. Twelve metabolically healthy males (age: 22.9 ± 3.0 years; BMI: 24.0 ± 3.3 kg/m²; VAT area: 53.8 ± 10.7 cm³) participated in three conditions separated by a 72-hour washout period, involving arugula extract capsules consumed in chewing (CW), swallowing (SW), and control (CON) formats. Venous blood samples, blood pressure, and heart rate variability were sampled at baseline and every hour following ingestion for 3 total hours. This study was small and limited to healthy young men, restricting generalizability to clinical populations.

A published study examined the antihypertensive effect of the methanolic extract from Eruca sativa Mill. (Brassicaceae) in rats, identifying muscarinic receptor-linked vasorelaxant and cardiotonic effects as mechanisms (published in Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2018;224:409–420). This was a preclinical animal study and cannot directly be extrapolated to human clinical use.

Evidence strength: A small number of clinical and animal studies suggest that regular consumption of nitrate-rich vegetables, including arugula, may have modest blood pressure-lowering effects. However, the direct evidence for arugula's impact on hypertension in humans remains limited, and much of the supportive data derives from broader cruciferous vegetable and dietary nitrate research.

5.2 Cancer Chemoprotection

Consumption of cruciferous vegetables is associated epidemiologically with reduced risk of various types of cancer, and isothiocyanates including sulforaphane and erucin are believed to be responsible for this activity.

In vitro (cell-based) evidence: Research found that erucin inhibits proliferation of MCF7 breast cancer cells (IC₅₀ = 28 µM) in parallel with cell cycle arrest at mitosis (IC₅₀ = 13 µM) and apoptosis, by a mechanism consistent with impairment of microtubule dynamics. Concentrations of 5–15 µM erucin suppressed the dynamic instability of microtubules during interphase. Most dynamic instability parameters were inhibited, including the rates and extents of growing and shortening and the switching frequencies between growing and shortening.

It has been reported that E. sativa has the potential to be an anticancer herb that can be used against colorectal cancer. Glucosinolates, a prominent group of phytochemicals found in E. sativa, are known for their potential anticancer properties; they can be hydrolyzed into bioactive compounds that exhibit cytotoxic effects on cancer cells and may inhibit tumor growth.

A study investigated the metabolite profiling of the ethanolic crude extract of E. sativa leaves using HR-LC/MS, including its antibacterial, antioxidant, and anticancer potential against human colorectal carcinoma cell lines (Caco-2 and HCT-116).

Evidence strength: All published anticancer research on arugula-specific constituents is preclinical — conducted in cell cultures or animal models. Research links cruciferous vegetables like arugula with a lower risk of some cancers, but more human studies are needed to confirm arugula's specific effects. No controlled human clinical trials have directly tested arugula or its isolated compounds for cancer prevention or treatment.

5.3 Antidiabetic Effects

An objective was to evaluate the antidiabetic activities of E. sativa in major insulin-responsive tissues. Five leaf extracts of varying polarity were prepared (aqueous extract, 70% and 95% ethanol extracts, the n-hexane-soluble fraction of the 95% ethanol extract [ES3], and the defatted 95% ethanol extract), which were then investigated through a variety of cell-based in vitro bioassays for antidiabetic activities in C2C12 skeletal muscle cells, H4IIE hepatocytes, and 3T3-L1 adipocytes. This study was conducted entirely in cell culture models.

A preclinical study reported that ethanolic extract of E. sativa displayed androgenic action and induced testicular steroid production. Sperm parameters in a streptozotocin-induced diabetic mouse model were significantly improved by the administration of 250 and 500 mg/kg ethanol extract for 8 consecutive weeks.

Evidence strength: Evidence is confined to in vitro and animal studies. No human clinical trials on arugula's antidiabetic effects have been published in the peer-reviewed literature to date.

5.4 Male Reproductive Health and Aphrodisiac Properties

A relatively large number of studies focusing on the biological effects of extracts from E. sativa leaves on in vitro and in vivo models have been published in recent years. A 2024 narrative review analyzed the phytochemical constituents, traditional uses, possible pharmacological activities, and recognized effects of E. sativa on male reproductive outcomes.

The aphrodisiac effect of the Eruca sativa plant is proposed to promote male fertility and sexual activity through spermatogenic proliferation, seminiferous tubule dilatation, and an increase in sex hormone levels. The plant can also promote the development of the testes and improve spermatozoa proliferation, maturation, and differentiation.

In a rat study involving cigarette smoke exposure, the Eruca sativa group showed a highly significant difference in sperm morphology and counts compared to the cigarette group (p < 0.001). Co-administration of Eruca sativa and cigarette smoke resulted in a significant reduction in abnormal sperm count, increased sperm count, higher sex hormone concentration, and improved lipid profile. This study, however, was conducted in an animal model with cigarette smoke-induced toxicity.

Evidence strength: The aphrodisiac and reproductive effects of arugula remain largely at the preclinical stage, based on animal models and in vitro experiments. No peer-reviewed randomized controlled trials in humans have been published on arugula's effects on male reproductive function or sexual performance.

5.5 Antimicrobial Activity

E. sativa contains several bioactive compounds such as vitamins, fatty acids, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenols; furthermore, the antibacterial assay of E. sativa extract showed inhibitory effects on tested pathogenic bacterial strains. Rocket plays an important role in several biological activities, including antioxidant, anticancer, antifungal, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective activities.

Evidence strength: All antimicrobial evidence is in vitro. No human clinical trials exist in this area specifically for arugula.

5.6 Bone Health

Consumption of foods high in Vitamin K and calcium has been linked to better bone health outcomes. Arugula is rich in these nutrients; it contains approximately 109 µg of Vitamin K per 100 g and contains notably more calcium than lettuce. Low vitamin K intake has been associated with low bone mineral density in women, according to data published in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.

Evidence strength: The bone health connection is inferential, based on the well-established roles of vitamin K and calcium in skeletal metabolism, rather than on trials using arugula as an intervention.

5.7 Hepatoprotective Activity

Preclinical research has demonstrated hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, fertility-enhancing, antiplatelet, antimicrobial, and photoprotective activities of Eruca sativa in various in vitro and in vivo models. The plant is rich in glucosinolates, isothiocyanates, flavonoids, phenolics, fatty acids, phytosterols, vitamins, and minerals, many of which have recognized biological actions.

Evidence strength: Hepatoprotective data are from preclinical animal experiments only. Human clinical data are absent.

5.8 Anti-Anemic Potential

The E. sativa plant has been studied for potential therapeutic effects against iron deficiency anemia due to its high content of iron, vitamin C, and active phytoconstituents, although the plant remains poorly explored for anti-anemic properties. A study investigated the anti-anemic effects of E. sativa and the interaction of its active compounds against anti-anemia targets through network pharmacology profiling, noting the plant's ability to interact with multiple targets as potentially enhancing therapeutic efficacy, along with its iron-rich content and laxative properties compared to allopathic iron preparations.

Evidence strength: Preliminary. This area requires dedicated human clinical trial data.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas

Cardiovascular system: Arugula contains large amounts of nitrates and potassium, which promote vasodilation and may facilitate optimal blood circulation, potentially helping to lower blood pressure.
Skeletal system: Arugula is especially rich in vitamin K and folate, both relevant to bone metabolism.
Gastrointestinal system: The plant is full of fiber, which supports good digestion and promotes satiety.
Reproductive/endocrine system: Preclinical evidence suggests that Eruca sativa positively influences the hormonal profile, supporting its potential benefits in managing reproductive dysfunction.
Immune system: Arugula has been studied for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antiproliferative, and antiangiogenesis properties, as well as its rich chemical composition.
Hepatic system: A wide range of phytochemicals in E. sativa have been reported to exhibit hepatoprotective activity in experimental models.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

No regulatory body (such as the EMA, WHO, or the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements) has established an official recommended dose for arugula as a dietary supplement. The following dosages are reported strictly as stated in published research:

In a cardiovascular study, twelve metabolically healthy males consumed arugula extract capsules (either chewed or swallowed), with effects assessed over a 3-hour post-ingestion period and a 72-hour washout between conditions.
A study investigating seed extract effects in male rats used doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg of Eruca sativa seed extract (ESS), with the acrylamide group receiving 10 mg/kg body weight for 60 days.
In a diabetic mouse model, sperm parameters were significantly improved by administration of 250 and 500 mg/kg ethanol extract for 8 consecutive weeks.
In vitro studies found that erucin inhibited MCF7 breast cancer cell proliferation at an IC₅₀ of 28 µM, induced cell cycle arrest at an IC₅₀ of 13 µM, and suppressed microtubule dynamic instability at concentrations of 5–15 µM.

Culinary consumption of raw arugula, as a food, is not subject to dosage standards. As a concentrated supplement or extract, no standardized dosing guidance exists in peer-reviewed literature or official pharmacopeial monographs.

8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

Vitamin K and Anticoagulant Drugs

A documented case report and literature review examined the interaction between warfarin, a widely used anticoagulant, and Eruca sativa (rocket salad), highlighting the issue of warfarin resistance that can arise from high vitamin K intake. Arugula is high in vitamin K, which is important for blood clotting. People on blood-thinning medication need to keep their intake of this nutrient consistent, as inconsistencies may affect drug efficacy.

Interaction with Sildenafil

A crossover rat study found that pre-administration of Eruca sativa increased sildenafil C_max from 226.72 to 345.25 ng/ml (p < 0.05), and the AUC of sildenafil was significantly increased when pre-administered with Eruca sativa (550.59 vs. 916.48 ng/ml*hr). These findings suggest that co-administration of Eruca sativa with sildenafil enhances the pharmacokinetics of sildenafil in rat plasma. This interaction has not been confirmed in human studies, but raises a clinically relevant pharmacokinetic concern for patients using phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors.

Thyroid Function

When consumed in excess, arugula may inhibit iodine absorption due to the goitrogenic substances it contains; thyroid patients are advised to consume it in moderation. Arugula affects how the thyroid absorbs iodine, a mineral it needs to produce several hormones; however, a person would need to eat far more than a typical serving of arugula for this to become an issue.

Kidney Stones (Oxalates)

For those at risk of kidney stones, excessive consumption of arugula is not recommended due to its oxalate content. For those taking blood-thinning medications, the high vitamin K content can pose a risk to drug effectiveness.

General Safety Profile as a Food

Due to its various applications including medicinal and forage uses, as well as its valuable traits such as genetic diversity, rapid vegetative growth, and high resistance to various stresses, arugula has gained significant scientific attention in recent years. At culinary serving levels, arugula is considered a food-safe leafy green with a well-established history of human consumption. Safety data specific to high-dose supplemental extracts in humans remains limited, as most pharmacological research has been conducted in animal models.

References

Health Conditions

Health conditions that Arugula may help support.

No conditions available.

Body Systems

Body systems that Arugula may help support.

No body systems available.