Aloin

Aloin (Barbaloin)

1. Identity: Botanical and Chemical Profile

1.1 Names and Classification

Aloin (also known as aloin A, or barbaloin) is a natural compound found in the exudate of dozens of species of Aloe, flowering succulent plants that grow or are cultivated worldwide. Chemically, aloin is a C-glycosidic derivative of anthraquinone and is considered the key active ingredient of Aloe. Its molecular formula is C₂₁H₂₂O₉, and its standard IUPAC chemical designation is 10-glucopyranosyl-1,8-dihydroxy-3-hydroxymethyl-9(10H)-anthracenone.

The compound exists as two diastereoisomers. Aloin exists in the form of two isomers, A and B, which differ by the position of the glucose group at the anthrone base; their proportions are susceptible to vary depending on the origin of the plants and on the extraction methods used. Barbaloin, also known as aloin A, is identified as the major constituent in the latex, followed by isobarbaloin (aloin B), aloesin (aloeresin B), and aloeresin A. The CAS Registry Number for aloin A (barbaloin) is 28371-16-6.

Aloin, also known as barbaloin, is a bitter, yellow-brown colored compound noted in the exudate of at least 68 Aloe species at levels from 0.1 to 6.6% of leaf dry weight (making between 3% and 35% of the total exudate), and in another 17 species at indeterminate levels.

1.2 Botanical Sources

Scientific names of aloin-producing species include Aloe perryi, A. barbadensis (= A. vera), A. ferox, and hybrids of A. ferox with A. africana and A. spicata. Among all these, Aloe barbadensis Miller (commonly known as Aloe vera) is by far the most commercially exploited. There are over 250 species of aloe grown around the world; however, only two species are grown today commercially, with Aloe barbadensis Miller and Aloe arborescens being the most popular.

The compound is present in what is commonly referred to as the aloe latex, which exudes from cells adjacent to the vascular bundles, found under the rind of the leaf and in between it and the gel. The latex contains approximately 80 chemical constituents and is yellow-brownish in appearance. Most of the latex compounds are phenolic in nature, mainly anthrones and anthraquinones.

1.3 Physical Characteristics

Barbaloin is a pale-yellow powder and is a first-group glucoside of the aloe emodin anthrone molecule. Aloin forms a monohydrate as lemon yellow crystals on crystallisation from water, which has a lower melting point (~70–80°C) than the anhydrous substance. A significant practical limitation of the compound is that both epimers (aloin A and aloin B) are not stable in aqueous solution and tend to degrade rapidly, with their concentration decreasing by over 50% within approximately 12 hours.

1.4 Common Forms and Preparations

Aloin is usually prepared by extraction from aloe latex (the term "Cape aloe" also refers to the dried latex of the leaves of several species of the genus Aloe, especially A. ferox), the bitter yellow exudate that seeps out from just underneath the skin of aloe leaves. The latex is then dried and powdered to make the final product, often made into tablets or a beverage, though aloin does not have good stability in aqueous solutions.

Products derived from the gel of the aloe plant do not contain appreciable amounts of aloin. Aloin is thus categorically distinct from aloe gel preparations; consumers of clear aloe gel products receive minimal to no aloin. When dried, aloin has been used as a bittering agent in commerce (alcoholic beverages), as referenced in 21 CFR 172.510.

---

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Ancient World

Aloe vera is used in traditional medicine as a skin treatment, with early records of its use appearing from the fourth millennium BCE. Evidence of the medicinal use of Aloe plants can be traced to the Egyptians of 400 BC. Aloe vera was also used to embalm the dead, as well as to protect the embalmers from death-causing agents. Other early civilizations used Aloe vera for skin care, to relieve insect stings and bites, to treat scratches and ulcerated skin, to promote wound healing, to prevent hair loss and as a purgative. It was the traditional medicine of many cultures as an anthelmintic, cathartic and stomachic, and was used inter alia for leprosy, burns, and allergic conditions.

The aloe species Aloe vera has a long history of use as an herbal medicine, beginning in ancient Greece and Rome. The Ancient Greeks and Romans used Aloe vera to treat wounds. In the Middle Ages, the yellowish liquid found inside the leaves was favored as a purgative.

2.2 Medieval and Early Modern Use

Aloe has had a very long historical use as a strong laxative treatment for chronic constipation, and it is still listed as a laxative in many pharmacopoeias; however, it has now been largely superseded by less toxic laxatives. The original commercial use for the Aloe plant was in the production of a latex substance called aloin, a yellow sap used for many years as a laxative ingredient.

The dried bitter sap of the aloe plant, known historically as "aloes," was traded across trade routes by Arab merchants. Arab traders, who named aloe "sabar" (meaning "patience" due to its slow growth), brought dried aloe sap, called aloes, to new markets. This bitter resin was used as a laxative, a practice that lasted for centuries. In the Americas, indigenous groups like the Maya and Aztecs began using aloe vera after Spanish colonizers introduced it; they applied it to burns, insect bites, and wounds, blending it into their herbal practices.

2.3 Nineteenth-Century Scientific Identification

Aloin, as barbaloin, was described in 1905 by Hooper Albert Dickinson Jowett and Charles Etty Potter at Wellcome Chemical Works (Dartford, UK). The authors stated that the compound was first isolated in 1850 and examined during the late 1800s by several researchers. In 1907, French chemist E. Léger reported that barbaloin transforms at 160–165°C to a product he called "β-barbaloin." It now appears that barbaloin epimerized to isobarbaloin, and what Léger made was a mixture of the two diastereomers.

Plant-derived remedies containing aloin and other anthraquinones have been used as traditional medicines since antiquity, but harsh side effects make these substances generally unsuitable for household or daily use.

---

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds in Context

Aloin is the dominant phenolic compound within the broader chemical matrix of aloe latex. Aloe vera whole-leaf extract, which includes the gel and latex, contains more than 200 chemicals, including amino acids, vitamins, minerals, lignin, and phytosterols. Within the latex fraction specifically, about 80 chemical constituents have been isolated by liquid chromatography, and most of the compounds are phenolic in nature, mainly anthraquinone C-glycosides, anthrones, and free anthraquinones.

Phenolic molecules, chromones, anthraquinone glycosides, and aloin (A and B isomers) make up approximately 30% of the outer cutaneous layer of the aloe leaf. The two isomers—aloin A (barbaloin) and aloin B (isobarbaloin)—are structurally related diastereomers; the structural differences between these two epimers suggest that they may exhibit distinct pharmacological properties.

---

4. Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Laxative Mechanism

Aloin is a prodrug whose activity is dependent on metabolic activation by intestinal bacteria. The anthrone C-glycosides (aloin A and B) are probably stable in the stomach, and the sugar moiety prevents their absorption into the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract and subsequent detoxification in the liver. This protects them from breakdown in the intestine before they reach their site of action in the colon and rectum. Once they have reached the large intestine, the glycosides behave like pro-drugs, liberating (through bacterial breakdown) the aglycones that act as the laxative.

More specifically, aloin reaches the large intestine in undigested form, where bacteria in the GIT metabolize aloin to release glucose and aloe-emodin-9-anthrone, which is subsequently oxidized to aloe-emodin. This bacterial conversion is essential; purgative activity in rats requires activation by Eubacterium sp. strain BAR or a similar intestinal anaerobe, presumably by conversion to aloe-emodin anthrone.

The resulting active metabolites drive laxation through several parallel mechanisms. Anthraquinone laxatives inhibit the absorption of water and sodium in the colon by inhibiting the activities of Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase of colonic epithelial cells. Another mechanism involves anthracene-induced downregulation of AQP8 expression in the colon epithelium, thus retaining water in the colonic cavity. In addition to increasing the water content of the stool to soften it, anthraquinones can directly stimulate the plexus of the colonic myenteric nerve and facilitate colon peristalsis activity. The net result is increased peristalsis of the colon, reducing transit time and, consequently, the reabsorption of water from the colon, making the stool more liquid and easing bowel movements.

4.2 Anti-inflammatory Mechanism

At the molecular level, aloin has been shown in cell-culture studies to suppress key pro-inflammatory signaling pathways. In a PMC-published in vitro study, aloin was found to suppress lipopolysaccharide-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion and nitric oxide production, and to downregulate the expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). The upstream mechanism identified was that aloin inhibits the phosphorylation and acetylation of the NF-κB p65 subunit by suppressing the upstream kinases p38 and Msk1, preventing LPS-induced p65 translocation to the nucleus. These findings indicate that aloin effectively suppresses the inflammatory response, primarily through the inhibition of NF-κB signaling.

In a separate in vitro study of vascular inflammation, aloin inhibited polyphosphate-mediated barrier disruption, the expressions of cell adhesion molecules, and adhesion/migration of leukocytes to HUVECs. PolyP-induced NF-κB activation and the productions of TNF-α and IL-6 were inhibited by aloin in HUVECs, and these anti-inflammatory functions were confirmed in PolyP-injected mice.

4.3 Antioxidant Activity

In vitro antioxidant activity (in 2-deoxyribose and DPPH degradation assays) has been demonstrated, which is probably caused by the phenolic nature of aloin. Animal studies have further shown that aloin can protect against oxidative damage: it protected the heart against lipid peroxidation and restored the levels of antioxidative defenses including reduced glutathione, catalase, and superoxide dismutase.

4.4 Anticancer Mechanisms (Preclinical)

An equimolar mixture of aloin A and aloin B demonstrated an ability to inhibit proteasome in tube tests, which is suggestive of potential anticancer properties. ThT fluorescence experiments showed that neither compound was able to inhibit Aβ amyloid aggregation, indicating that other mechanisms may be responsible for their neuroprotective effects. Aloin, described as an anthraquinone present in aloe species, possesses antiangiogenic, chemopreventive, and antioxidant properties. It exerts cytotoxicity against breast cancer and ovarian cancer cell lines. These properties of aloin have been proposed as positioning it as a chemopreventive adjuvant to anticancer chemotherapy.

---

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Constipation and Gastrointestinal Effects

Traditional and pharmacopoeial standing: Aloin's stimulant laxative activity has the longest historical basis and the most regulatory acknowledgment of any of its proposed uses. The compound is used as a stimulant-laxative, treating constipation by inducing bowel movements.

Regulatory status: In 2002, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a final rule stating that use of aloe as a nonprescription laxative drug is no longer generally recognized as safe and effective. In June 1998, the FDA reclassified aloe from category I (monograph) to category III (more data needed) alongside cascara sagrada, bisacodyl, and senna. The FDA requested mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and genotoxicity data on aloe and cascara sagrada ingredients from manufacturers, but there were no submissions.

Mechanism evidence: The laxative pharmacology is well characterized at the preclinical level. The 6 to 8 hour lag-time for activity reflects the time it takes for ingested anthraquinone glycosides to reach the appropriate part of the colon for conversion into aglycones. The effect is localized to the large bowel.

Evidence strength: The laxative mechanism is strongly established through preclinical, mechanistic, and pharmacological work, but human clinical trials specifically evaluating aloin as an isolated compound are limited. Compared to in vitro and in vivo assays, clinical trials are limited and focus on digestive and skin protective effects. Furthermore, these clinical trials have been conducted with Aloe vera as a whole, but not with isolated compounds; therefore, it would be of interest to study the clinical effect of relevant metabolites in different human conditions.

5.2 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Evidence base: Anti-inflammatory properties of aloin are supported by multiple in vitro and animal studies, primarily through the NF-κB pathway as described in Section 4.2 above. Based on the anti-inflammatory effects of aloin in polyphosphate-mediated septic responses, aloin has been proposed to have therapeutic potential for various systemic inflammatory diseases.

Evidence strength: Currently in vitro and animal (preclinical) only. No published human clinical trials specifically attributing anti-inflammatory outcomes to isolated aloin were identified. This area remains exploratory.

5.3 Anticancer and Chemopreventive Properties

New pharmacological data research has shown that most studies refer to anti-cancer action, skin and digestive protective activity, and antimicrobial properties. However, all identified evidence is preclinical. One rat-based study evaluated the effect of concurrent oral administration of aloin against doxorubicin (DOX)-induced cardiotoxicity. Aloin was found to possess antiangiogenic, chemopreventive, and antioxidant properties in this context.

Recent studies have investigated aloin as an antineoplastic agent that enhances melanogenesis and transglutaminase activity.

Evidence strength: Exclusively in vitro and animal studies. According to Cancer Research UK, there is currently no evidence that aloe products can help to prevent or treat cancer in humans. No human clinical trials on aloin for cancer have been identified.

5.4 Neuroprotective Effects

Aloin has been proposed to possess neuroprotective effects, such as improving cognitive dysfunction, preventing chronic gliosis, and exhibiting antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Recent studies have also suggested that aloin could serve as a new neuroprotective compound.

Aloin, as a bioactive Aloe vera compound, shows promise in treating neurodegenerative diseases via neuroprotection.

Evidence strength: Preliminary, based entirely on preclinical in vitro and animal work. No human clinical data exist in the identified literature.

5.5 Antimicrobial and Antiviral Activity

The anthraquinone aloin has been reported in the literature to inactivate various enveloped viruses such as herpes simplex, varicella zoster, and influenza. These are in vitro findings.

In a PMC-published in vitro study, aloin A was tested in combination with polyethylene glycol against selected microorganisms including P. aeruginosa, E. coli, K. pneumoniae, S. aureus, C. albicans, and T. flavus; the study found that aloin A exhibited highly promising bacterial and fungal inhibitory activity.

Regarding antifungal properties against Candida albicans, a 2025 PMC study found a novel mechanism: aloin was found to target virulence factors (such as hyphal formation) rather than directly killing the pathogen, indicating that it functions as a practical anti-virulence agent. Although aloin did not show direct inhibition of C. albicans growth in vitro, it significantly reduced fungal pathogenicity.

Under aerobic conditions, concentrations of 1 and 2 mg/ml of aloin efficiently inhibited L. acidophilus growth. The antimicrobial effect of these two concentrations was statistically significant (p < 0.05) compared to lower concentrations. This finding also raises the important point that aloin's antimicrobial activity is not fully selective for pathogens and may disrupt commensal gut flora at relevant concentrations (see Section 7).

Evidence strength: Entirely preclinical (in vitro and some animal models). No human clinical trials on aloin for infection have been identified.

5.6 Cardioprotective Activity

A rat-model study published in Cancer Chemotherapy and Pharmacology (Springer) specifically investigated aloin as a co-administration agent with the cardiotoxic chemotherapy drug doxorubicin. Aloin protected the heart against lipid peroxidation and restored levels of antioxidative defenses (reduced glutathione, catalase, and superoxide dismutase). Aloin also prominently reduced levels of proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and others.

Evidence strength: Animal model only. No human clinical data identified.

5.7 Hepatoprotective Activity (Animal Studies)

In a rat study investigating aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-induced liver injury, aloin significantly inhibited the decrease in food intake, body weight, immune organ index, and serum albumin content caused by long-term AFB1 exposure. It also reduced levels of serum liver function markers and improved renal and pathological changes of liver tissue. Aloin further inhibited liver lipid peroxidation and improved liver antioxidant capacity. Importantly, this is mechanistically distinct from the hepatotoxicity associated with high-dose aloe ingestion in humans (see Section 7).

Evidence strength: Animal model only; these hepatoprotective findings are at the preclinical stage and must not be conflated with clinical outcomes.

---

6. Body Systems Associated with Aloin

• Gastrointestinal system: Aloin's primary and best-characterized pharmacological role is as a stimulant laxative acting on the large intestine. Once ingested, aloin increases peristaltic contractions in the colon, which induces bowel movements.
• Immune system / inflammatory pathways: In vitro evidence shows inhibition of NF-κB, TNF-α, IL-6, iNOS, and COX-2, which are key nodes in innate immune and inflammatory signaling.
• Cardiovascular system: Preclinical (rat) data suggest cardioprotective activity against chemotherapy-induced oxidative damage. Indirectly, aloin-driven electrolyte loss can adversely affect cardiac rhythm (see Section 7).
• Nervous system: Proposed neuroprotective effects based on animal and cell-culture work, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory modulation.
• Integumentary system (skin): Historically used topically for burns, wounds, and skin conditions, though this is attributed more broadly to aloe preparations rather than to isolated aloin specifically.
• Hepatic system: Paradoxically, animal data show protective effects against certain hepatotoxins, while clinical case reports indicate aloe latex ingestion can cause acute hepatotoxicity in humans.
• Microbial/Gut Microbiota: Aloin makes up a substantial fraction of the outer aloe leaf layer, and research has shown dose-dependent disruption of gut microbial community composition at concentrations used in studies.

---

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

No standardized human therapeutic dose for isolated aloin has been established in the scientific literature, and aloin's removal from OTC laxative products in the US (2002) means contemporary clinical dosing guidelines are largely absent. The following dosages and forms appear in the research literature:

• Tablet and powdered form: Aloin is prepared by drying and powdering the aloe latex, often made into tablets or a beverage.
• Capsule (clinical case context): One human case study involved oral consumption of a 500 mg capsule of aloe extract for 4 weeks by a 56-year-old woman, which resulted in acute hepatotoxicity; upon discontinuation, rapid improvement was observed. In another case study, a 24-year-old adult consumed 500 mg of Aloe vera capsules for 3 weeks; liver biopsy revealed toxicity similar to drug-induced liver injury, as well as other clinical abnormalities.
• NTP rodent study dosage: In the NTP draft report, rats given water containing 60 ppm aloin—6 times the amount allowed in orally ingested products under self-imposed industry standards—showed that 39% of females and 74% of males developed malignant or benign intestinal tumors.
• Pharmacokinetic data (animal): A rat pharmacokinetic study using UHPLC-MS/MS found that aloin-A showed fast absorption, extensive distribution, and rapid elimination. An absolute bioavailability of 5.79% was found following oral administration.
• In vitro antimicrobial concentrations: Complete inhibition of E. coli growth was observed at concentrations of 1 and 2 mg/ml of aloin.
• Industry standard (food use): Self-imposed industry standards have referenced a threshold of approximately 10 ppm aloin in orally ingested aloe products, though regulatory frameworks differ by jurisdiction.

---

8. Safety Considerations and Regulatory Status

8.1 Acute Adverse Effects

Ingestion of aloe preparations is associated with diarrhea, hypokalemia, pseudomelanosis coli, kidney failure, as well as phototoxicity and hypersensitive reactions. The adverse effects of laxative anthraquinone drugs are more likely to result from the excessive loss of fluid and electrolytes, particularly potassium, associated with the use of high doses.

8.2 Chronic Use and Dependency

Long-term use of anthraquinone laxatives should be avoided because of possible laxative dependence (stimulated peristalsis begins to replace natural peristalsis), and because it may produce harmful effects on intestinal mucosa, leading to a condition known as melanosis coli (or pseudomelanosis). This is usually observed after a minimum of 9–12 months of regular stimulant laxative use. The habituation mechanism results from the fact that chronic abuse of laxatives raises aldosterone levels in response to electrolyte loss, diminishing their effectiveness.

8.3 Hepatotoxicity

Several case studies provide evidence that human oral consumption of aloe vera has resulted in hepatotoxicity. The mechanism of aloe-associated hepatotoxicity in humans is not fully established but case reports indicate it can occur at doses as low as 500 mg of aloe extract capsules taken over weeks. Oral ingestion of aloe vera extracts may cause acute abdominal pain and cramps, and hepatitis if consumed chronically.

8.4 Genotoxicity and Carcinogenicity

This is the most significant area of regulatory concern. On the basis of available data, the EFSA Panel noted that emodin, aloe-emodin, and the structurally related substance danthron have shown evidence of in vitro genotoxicity. Aloe extracts have also been shown to be genotoxic in vitro, possibly due to the presence of hydroxyanthracene derivatives. Furthermore, aloe-emodin was shown to be genotoxic in vivo, and the whole-leaf aloe extract and the structural analogue danthron were shown to be carcinogenic.

Aloe vera whole leaf extract showed clear evidence of carcinogenic activity in rats, and was classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a possible human carcinogen (Group 2B). The NTP rodent study was pivotal: the National Toxicology Program conducted two-year studies in rats and mice using non-decolorized whole leaf extract of aloe vera. These studies found clear evidence of carcinogenic activity, with increased incidence of tumors in the large intestine.

The scientific picture is complicated, however, because the medical and epidemiological literature contains mixed results, and there is much evidence to suggest that the EFSA position may at least be an over-reaction with respect to human exposure risk. It is important to note that most toxicity studies tested non-decolorized whole leaf extract, which is not commonly used by consumers who purchase purified aloe gel products.

8.5 Regulatory Actions

In 2002, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a final rule stating that use of aloe as a nonprescription laxative drug is no longer generally recognized as safe and effective. Between 2020 and 2024, the FDA issued draft guidance restricting the use of aloe vera in food products to decolorized whole leaf gel with aloin levels below 10 parts per million (ppm), citing concerns over potential genotoxicity from hydroxyanthracene derivatives like aloin.

Due to widespread human exposure and concerns that some components may cause cancer, in 1998 the National Cancer Institute nominated aloe vera as a high-priority candidate for a carcinogenicity study under the National Toxicology Program (NTP).

8.6 Drug Interactions

Aloin's most clinically significant interactions arise from its ability to cause potassium loss. Blood thinners such as warfarin, heart medications such as digoxin, and diuretics may be affected by electrolyte shifts caused by aloin-containing preparations. The electrolyte-depleting effect of aloin is pharmacologically relevant: hypokalemia can potentiate the effects of cardiac glycosides (such as digoxin), increasing the risk of toxicity, and can also reduce the efficacy of antiarrhythmic medications. Additionally, aloin has been reported to inhibit the activity and expression of hepatic CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 in rat studies, which are important cytochrome P450 enzymes responsible for metabolizing a wide range of pharmaceutical drugs; however, the clinical relevance of this CYP inhibition in humans has not been directly validated.

8.7 Contraindications

Stimulating laxatives, including aloes, are to be avoided during pregnancy. Laxatives containing anthraquinone glycosides are considered overly stimulating during pregnancy, as their effects of increasing intestinal peristalsis can lead to sympathetic uterine stimulation. Aloe vera should not be used during pregnancy. Based on broader anthraquinone pharmacology, aloin-containing products are also generally contraindicated in bowel obstruction, acute intestinal inflammation, spastic colon, irritable bowel syndrome, and in children under 12 years of age.

8.8 Gut Microbiota Disruption

A PMC-published study in Toxicological Sciences (Oxford Academic) found that oral administration of an Aloe vera whole leaf extract induced dose-related mucosal and goblet cell hyperplasia in the rat colon after 13 weeks and colon cancer after 2 years. A related study found that aloin disrupts gut microbial community composition in a dose-dependent manner, with higher concentrations inhibiting both pathogenic and commensal organisms.

---

Summary of Evidence Quality

The table below summarizes the weight of evidence for each claimed activity of aloin across study types:

• Stimulant laxative action: Mechanistic and pharmacological evidence is strong (established through multiple preclinical studies and historical pharmacopoeial use); dedicated human RCTs with isolated aloin are absent. Regulatory actions reflect this gap.
• Anti-inflammatory activity: In vitro evidence is consistent and mechanistically coherent (NF-κB pathway); no human clinical data available for isolated aloin.
• Antioxidant activity: Demonstrated in vitro and in some animal models; no human evidence.
• Anticancer/antiproliferative activity: Preclinical in vitro data only; no human trial evidence; IARC has classified whole-leaf aloe extract (which contains aloin) as a Group 2B possible human carcinogen based on animal evidence.
• Neuroprotective activity: Preliminary preclinical data; no human evidence.
• Antimicrobial/antifungal/antiviral activity: In vitro data available; no human clinical evidence for isolated aloin.
• Safety and toxicology: Significant body of animal and human case report evidence documenting adverse effects; formal regulatory restriction in the US (2002 FDA final rule) and EFSA safety assessment.

References

• American Chemical Society — Molecule of the Week: Aloin
• ScienceDirect Topics: Aloin (Agricultural and Biological Sciences overview)
• Wikipedia: Aloin
• PubChem (NIH): Aloin — CID 9866696
• PMC: Exploring the therapeutic potential of Aloin — neuroprotective and anticancer mechanisms (2024)
• PMC: Pharmacological Update Properties of Aloe Vera and its Major Active Constituents (2020)
• PMC: Aloe vera — A Review of Toxicity and Adverse Clinical Effects (Guo and Mei, 2016)
• PMC: Aloin Suppresses Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Response by Inhibiting NF-κB Activation
• PubMed: Suppressive effects of aloin on polyphosphate-mediated vascular inflammatory responses
• Springer: Aloin alleviates doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity in rats (Cancer Chemotherapy and Pharmacology, 2020)
• PMC: Aloin, a Component of Aloe Vera, Induces Pathological Changes and Modulates Microbiota in Large Intestines of Rats (Toxicological Sciences, 2017)
• Oxford Academic / Toxicological Sciences: Aloin Induces Pathological Changes in the Large Intestines of F344/N Male Rats
• PMC: Dose-Dependent Effects of Aloin on Intestinal Bacterial Community Structure, SCFA Metabolism and Epithelial Permeability
• PMC: Aloin against Subchronic Aflatoxin B1 Induced Hepatic Injury in Rats
• PMC: Aloin remodels the cell wall of Candida albicans to reduce its hyphal virulence (2025)
• PMC: Evaluation of anti-infective potencies of formulated aloin A ointment and aloin A isolated from Aloe barbadensis Miller
• PMC: Aloe vera — An Extensive Review Focused on Recent Studies (2024)
• PMC (Environmental Health Perspectives): NTP Rodent Assay of Non-Decolorized Aloe vera Extract — The Beat
• EFSA Journal: Safety of hydroxyanthracene derivatives for use in food (2018)
• Frontiers in Pharmacology: Review on melanosis coli and anthraquinone-containing herbs (2023)
• ScienceDirect Topics: Aloin (Pharmacology and Toxicology overview)
• ScienceDirect: UHPLC-MS/MS method for quantification of aloin-A in rat plasma — pharmacokinetic study
• Supply Side Journal: FDA Rules on Aloe and Cascara Sagrada in OTC Laxative Products
• PMC: Functional Studies of Plant Latex as a Rich Source of Bioactive Compounds