Tetrahidropalmitina

Otros Nombres

(13aR)-5,8,13,13a-tetrahydro-2,3,9,10-tetramethoxy-6H-dibenzo[a,g]quinolizine hydrochloride(R)-Tetrahydropalmatine(S)-2,3,9,10-Tetramethoxy-5,8,13,13a-tetrahydro-6H-isoquino[3,2-a]isoquinoline(S)-Tetrahydropalmatine(–)-Corydalis B2,3,9,10-Tetramethoxy-6,8,13,13a-tetrahydro-5H-isoquinolino[3,2-a]isoquinoline5,8,13,13a-Tetrahydro-2,3,9,10-tetramethoxy-6H-dibenzo[a,g]quinolizineCaseanineD-TetrahydropalmatineDL-TetrahydropalmatineHindarineHyndanrineHyndarinL-TetrahydropalmatineL-THPLevo-tetrahydropalmatineLevo-THPRotundinRotundineRotundinumTetrahydropalmantineTetrahydropalmatinTetrahydropalmitineTHPYan Hu Suo

Sinopsis

Tetrahydropalmatine (THP): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity: Names, Chemical Properties, and Natural Sources

1.1 Chemical Identity

THP (molecular formula: C₂₁H₂₅NO₄) is an isoquinoline alkaloid widely present in Chinese herbal medicine preparations. Also known as rotundine, it is a tetrahydroprotoberberine isoquinoline alkaloid, characterized by four methoxy groups at positions 2, 3, 9, and 10 on its tetracyclic ring structure. The compound is soluble in chloroform, benzene, ether, and hot ethanol; sparingly soluble in water, but insoluble in other highly polar solvents, and it features a single chiral center that influences its stereoselective metabolism.

THP has a chiral center in its structure, and its levorotatory form [(−)-tetrahydropalmatine, (−)-THP] is also known as rotundine. In L-THP, the N⁺ cation is downward and the chiral (C14)-H is upward. It is therefore also known by the IUPAC name (13aR)-5,8,13,13a-tetrahydro-2,3,9,10-tetramethoxy-6H-dibenzo[a,g]quinolizine hydrochloride. The compound exists in three forms: the levorotatory enantiomer (L-THP, or l-THP), the dextrorotatory enantiomer (d-THP), and the racemic mixture (dl-THP). The pharmaceutical industry has synthetically produced the more potent enantiomer levo-tetrahydropalmatine (Levo-THP; technically l-THP, often written L-THP), which has been marketed worldwide under different brand names as an alternative to anxiolytic and sedative drugs of the benzodiazepine group and analgesics such as opiates.

The racemic CAS number is 2934-97-6, and the levo-enantiomer (L-THP / rotundine) carries CAS number 483-14-7. THP has several derivatives with similar structures, including corydaline and benzyltetrahydropalmatine. Palmatine can be converted to THP when its C–C double bond and C–N double bond are reduced.

1.2 Synonyms and Trade Names

Synonyms for the levo-enantiomer include (−)-Corydalis B, Rotundine, (−)-Tetrahydropalmatine, (S)-Tetrahydropalmatine, and L-THP. It has been approved and used in China for a number of clinical indications under the drug name Rotundine.

1.3 Natural Sources

THP is an isoquinoline alkaloid found in several different plant species, mainly in the genus Corydalis (Yan Hu Suo), but also in other plants such as Stephania rotunda. THP is widely present in botanical drugs such as Stephania epigaea H.S. Lo (Menispermaceae; Radix stephaniae epigaeae), Corydalis yanhusuo (Y.H.Chou and Chun C.Hsu) W.T. Wang ex Z.Y. Su and C.Y. Wu (Papaveraceae; Corydalis rhizoma), and Phellodendron chinense C.K.Schneid (Berberidaceae; Phellodendri chinensis cortex).

THP is also found in species such as Stephania rotunda, Stephania epigaea, and Stephania venosa, as well as in trace amounts in other members of the Papaveraceae family, including Corydalis decumbens and Corydalis solida. These plants are predominantly native to East Asia, with major distribution in China and Southeast Asian countries, where C. yanhusuo grows in mountainous regions and is harvested for its medicinal rhizomes. THP is also found in botanical drugs used in some Southeast Asian countries and African countries, including Stephania rotunda Lour [Menispermaceae; Koma pich] and Stephania venosa (Blume) Spreng [Menispermaceae; Sa-Bu-Leud].

Rhizoma Corydalis has a long history of medicinal use and is mainly cultivated in the Zhejiang, Jiangxi, and Anhui provinces of China. Scientists have isolated a number of alkaloids from the tuber of corydalis, including corydaline, tetrahydropalmatine (THP), dl-tetrahydropalmatine (dl-THP), protopine, tetrahydrocoptisine, tetrahydrocolumbamine, and corybulbine. Of the full range of alkaloids found in the plant, THP is considered to be the most potent.

1.4 Common Forms and Preparations

THP is commercially available in several forms. It has been marketed worldwide under different brand names as an alternative to anxiolytic and sedative drugs of the benzodiazepine group and analgesics such as opiates, and it is also sold as a dietary supplement. Pharmaceutical-grade preparations include the hydrochloride salt, the sulfate salt, and the free base form, each in tablet or capsule formulations. The drug, according to the Chinese pharmacopeia and drug labels, is employed at the recommended therapeutic dosage range of 60–120 mg.

Within traditional preparations, the rhizome or tuber is processed before use. Vinegar and wine processing of medicinal plants are two traditional pharmaceutical techniques that have been used for thousands of years in China. The procedures for processing Rhizoma Corydalis using vinegar and wine have been standardized according to pharmacists' experiences and are listed in the Pharmacopoeia of Chinese Medicine and the National Guideline of Traditional Chinese Medicinal Plants Processing. Comparison of analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of wine and vinegar processed products of Rhizoma Corydalis showed that vinegar processed products are better than wine processed products.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Rhizoma Corydalis (RC), also known as Corydalis yanhusuo, YuanHu, YanHu, or XuanHu in China, is a well-known traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) prepared from the dried tubers of Corydalis yanhusuo (Y.H. Chou and Chun C.Hsu) W.T. Wang ex Z.Y. Su and C.Y. Wu (Papaveraceae). RC was first recorded in the Shennong Herbal Classic and was listed as a medium-grade drug. It is described as pungent, bitter, and warm, and is transported to the spleen and the liver meridians. In TCM, RC is believed to have functions such as activating blood, reinforcing vital energy, and relieving pain.

In Traditional Chinese Medicine, corydalis is said to invigorate the blood, move qi (energy that travels through the body), and alleviate pain, including menstrual, abdominal, and hernial. The plant's medicinal use spans well over a millennium; documentation appears in the Tang Materia Medica (Bencao Shiyi) of the 8th century CE as well as in the later Compendium of Materia Medica (Bencao Gangmu).

Two of these species, Corydalis ambigua (yan hu suo in Chinese) and Stephania tetranda (fang ji in Chinese), have been used by traditional Chinese medicine for their sedative, neuroleptic, and analgesic properties. THP has been widely utilized in traditional Chinese and Southeast Asian medicines for its sedative, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory properties.

In the modern pharmacological era, contemporary phytochemistry studies of Corydalis yanhusuo started in the 1960s, and Hsu and Kin were the first to isolate l-tetrahydropalmatine (l-THP) from Corydalis yanhusuo and conducted the first pharmacological characterization of the compound. It has been approved by the Chinese government agency since 1964 (State Food and Drug Administration of China), and was listed in the Pharmacopoeia of China (1977 edition) for human use in relief of chronic pain, insomnia, and anxiety.

3. Key Constituents and Mechanisms of Action

3.1 Botanical Co-Constituents

Many Corydalis species are rich in alkaloids, with positive effects on the central nervous, digestive, cardiovascular, and pituitary–adrenal cortex systems. The principal alkaloid classes found in Corydalis yanhusuo include tetrahydroprotoberberines (of which THP is the prototype), protoberberines, aporphines, protopines, and benzazepines. THP is considered the dominant bioactive alkaloid, though it co-occurs with corydaline, isocorypalmine, protopine, dehydrocorydaline, and dehydrocorybulbine, and some evidence suggests synergistic interactions among these constituents.

3.2 Dopaminergic Mechanisms (Primary)

The pharmacological profile of l-THP includes antagonism of dopamine D1 and D2 receptors as well as actions at dopamine D3, alpha adrenergic, and serotonin receptors. The Ki values for l-THP at D1 and D2 dopamine receptors are approximately 124 nM (D1) and 388 nM (D2).

In addition to the antagonism of postsynaptic dopamine receptors, the blockade of presynaptic autoreceptors by l-THP results in increased dopamine release, and it has been suggested that the lower affinity of l-THP for D2 receptors may confer some degree of autoreceptor selectivity. Pharmacological studies have demonstrated that l-THP is an antagonist of DA D1 and D2 receptors. In addition, l-THP also binds to DA D3 receptors.

3.3 Additional Receptor Targets

Along with dopamine receptors, l-THP has been reported to interact with a number of other receptor types, including alpha-1 adrenergic receptors, at which it functions as an antagonist, and GABA-A receptors, through positive allosteric modulation. Additionally, l-THP displays significant binding to 5-HT1A and alpha-2 adrenergic receptors.

Tetrahydropalmatine has been shown to bind to dopamine receptors and act as an antagonist at D1 and D2, and an agonist at D3, and α-adrenergic and serotonin receptors. L-tetrahydropalmatine may also bind to GABA receptors.

3.4 Anti-inflammatory Pathways

Tetrahydropalmatine inhibited LPS-induced IL-8 production in a dose-dependent manner, and further inhibited extracellular signal-regulated kinase and p38 MAPK phosphorylation, suggesting that tetrahydropalmatine inhibits IL-8 secretion by blocking MAPK phosphorylation.

L-THP was studied for its effect on the transcriptional and translational levels of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and the nuclear translocation of NF-κB in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. L-THP could significantly inhibit the expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 on cell surface by 31% and 36% at 30 μmol/L.

3.5 Cardiovascular Mechanisms

Previous studies have indicated that THP presented multiple pharmacological effects on cardio and neural tissues, such as cardioprotection, neuroprotection, anti-oxidant, anti-apoptosis, and anti-inflammation. THP relaxed rat aorta that had contracted by phenylephrine, KCl, and U46619. The vascular relaxation effect of THP was partially attenuated by PI3K inhibitor wortmannin, Akt inhibitor IV, endothelial nitric oxide synthetase (eNOS) inhibitor L-NAME, guanylate cyclase inhibitors, and the mechanical removal of endothelium. The eNOS substrate L-arginine reversed the inhibition effect of L-NAME on THP-induced vascular relaxation, and THP also induced intracellular nitric oxide production in human umbilical vein endothelial cells.

3.6 Neuroprotective Mechanisms

THP improved memory impairment, protected the blood–brain barrier, and ameliorated cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injuries in experimental mouse models.

3.7 Metabolites and Their Activity

L-THP is metabolized in the human liver by O-demethylation and hydroxylation; the main metabolites are l-isocorypalmine (L-ICP), l-corypalmine (L-CP), l-corydalmine (L-CD), and l-tetrahydropalmatrubine (L-THB). The metabolites have similar or even stronger pharmacological activities than l-THP itself. In particular, L-ICP and L-CP have stronger effects on D1 receptors than l-THP, which can reduce the behavioral sensitization and euphoric effects of cocaine in rats.

3.8 Pharmacokinetics

Pharmacokinetic studies showed that THP was inadequately absorbed in the intestine and had rapid clearance and low bioavailability in vivo, as well as self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems, which could increase the absorption level and absorption rate of THP and improve its bioavailability.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Pain Relief (Analgesia)

L-THP has been identified as one of the major active components of Corydalis yanhusuo and has been used clinically in China for more than 40 years as an analgesic with sedative/hypnotic properties. THP has a large number of pharmacological effects, including analgesic, anti-addiction, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotection, and anticancer effects. As a traditional gynecological analgesic, this aspect of pharmacological research is substantial.

Most evidence for THP's analgesic effects derives from preclinical (animal) models, as well as its documented clinical use in China. In one preclinical study, a potent anti-hyperalgesic effect of l-THP was described in a mouse model of oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic pain, with antagonist studies revealing a primary dopamine D1 receptor-mediated effect. One study indicated that l-THP may exert an analgesic effect through inhibiting neuroinflammation via the Clec7a-MAPK/NF-κB-NLRP3 inflammasome axis, supporting the clinical utility of l-THP in neuropathic pain therapy.

L-THP and its metabolites demonstrated analgesic and anti-addiction effects. The available data confirms the potential of L-THP and its metabolites to treat both chronic pain and drug addiction. However, further clinical trials are needed to establish safety and efficacy.

Evidence strength: The analgesic evidence is strong in preclinical models and is supported by decades of clinical use in China as a licensed medicine (Rotundine). However, large-scale, rigorous randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in Western populations remain limited.

4.2 Sedation, Anxiolysis, and Sleep

In laboratory research, THP has been shown to exhibit a wide number of pharmacological actions on the central nervous system, including analgesic and sedative effects. Scientists have suggested that dl-THP blocks certain receptor sites (e.g., dopamine) in the brain to cause sedation.

L-THP was listed in the Chinese Pharmacopeia in 1977 for its sedative, neuroleptic, and analgesic properties. L-THP has been used for the treatment of chronic pain and anxious insomnia. According to the Chinese pharmacopeia and drug labels, the drug is considered safe at the recommended therapeutic dosage range of 60–120 mg. Adverse effects include drowsiness (77% at doses above 90 mg), dizziness, and nausea (rare). These documented adverse effects are consistent with its pharmacological sedation profile and confirm that the sedative action is both real and dose-dependent.

Evidence strength: Sedation and sleep-promoting effects are the best-established clinical properties of l-THP, supported by its inclusion in the Chinese Pharmacopeia and decades of use as an approved drug (Rotundine). Large-scale independent RCTs on sleep-disorder endpoints in non-Chinese populations are lacking.

4.3 Substance Use Disorders and Anti-Addiction

L-THP is an active constituent of herbal preparations containing plant species of the genera Stephania and Corydalis and has been approved and used in China for a number of clinical indications under the drug name Rotundine. The pharmacological profile of l-THP, which includes antagonism of dopamine D1 and D2 receptors and actions at dopamine D3, alpha adrenergic and serotonin receptors, suggests that it may have utility for treating cocaine addiction.

Heroin addiction (clinical trial): A randomized, double-blinded, and placebo-controlled study examined the effects of l-THP on reducing heroin craving and increasing the abstinence rate among heroin-dependent subjects; 120 heroin-dependent subjects participated in the study using l-THP treatment. The participants remained in a ward during a four-week period of l-THP treatment, followed by four weeks of observation after treatment, and subjects were followed for three months after discharge. This clinical trial conducted in China administered l-THP (60 mg, twice daily) or a placebo to 119 heroin-dependent inpatients over a period of one month, and found that l-THP significantly alleviated withdrawal symptoms, especially heroin craving.

Cocaine addiction (Phase I safety study): A randomized, placebo-controlled, and double-blind clinical study assessed the safety of THP for cocaine users. The results showed that a short 3.5-days course of THP was well tolerated and safe and did not affect the pharmacokinetics of cocaine or its acute cardiovascular effects. The University of Maryland completed a Phase I study for THP in people with a history of cocaine use. Their Phase II study for cocaine use disorder was withdrawn due to a lack of funding.

Methamphetamine addiction (preclinical): Animal studies have demonstrated that l-THP blocks both the acquisition and expression of methamphetamine-induced locomotor sensitization and inhibits methamphetamine-induced conditioned place preference.

Alcohol: THP decreases ethanol drinking and the mechanism is associated with D2R-mediated PKA signaling in the caudate-putamen.

Evidence strength: Preclinical evidence is extensive and consistent. Human clinical evidence is limited to a small number of trials conducted predominantly in China, with modest sample sizes. The demonstrated efficacy of l-THP in preclinical models and clinical studies suggests that the development or identification of compounds with more complex pharmacological effects that include actions at multiple monoamine receptors may represent promising new strategies for the treatment of addiction. Further large-scale RCTs are needed.

4.4 Cardiovascular Effects

THP has been widely used in traditional Chinese medicine for treating various pains and cardiovascular disease. THP was found to induce hypotension and bradycardia through inhibition of the 5-HT2 and/or D2 receptor in the hypothalamus in rats. Preclinical evidence also supports cardioprotective effects: l-THP pretreatment alleviated hepatocyte injury caused by ischemia-reperfusion and reduced the production of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-α. Furthermore, L-THP could inhibit the ERK/NF-κB signaling pathway to attenuate hepatocyte apoptosis and autophagy.

Evidence strength: Evidence for cardiovascular effects is primarily preclinical (animal and cell-culture models). There are no large human RCTs specifically targeting cardiovascular outcomes. Notably, the blood-pressure-lowering and heart-rate-lowering effects observed in animals are also relevant to the safety profile (see Section 6).

4.5 Anti-inflammatory Effects

THP has been reported to exert several pharmacological effects, including anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and analgesic activities. The cellular mechanisms include inhibition of NF-κB nuclear translocation, downregulation of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, and suppression of MAPK phosphorylation pathways. THP inhibited LPS-induced IL-8 production in a dose-dependent manner and inhibited extracellular signal-regulated kinase and p38 MAPK phosphorylation, suggesting that THP inhibits IL-8 secretion by blocking MAPK phosphorylation.

Evidence strength: Anti-inflammatory effects are well-characterized in cell culture and animal models. Human clinical trial data specifically for anti-inflammatory indications is absent.

4.6 Neuroprotection

THP has a large number of pharmacological effects, including analgesic, anti-addiction, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotection, and anticancer effects. THP improved memory impairment, protected the blood–brain barrier, and ameliorated cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injuries in experimental mouse models.

Evidence strength: Neuroprotective findings are confined to preclinical models. No human clinical trials have directly assessed neuroprotective endpoints for THP.

4.7 Lipid Metabolism and Obesity

THP was identified to significantly suppress lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 cells and inhibited pre-adipocyte differentiation in a concentration-dependent manner, as evidenced by the reduced formation of lipid droplets and decreased triglyceride levels and glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase activity. THP has been shown to exert hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects in hyperlipidemia. Whether THP regulates lipid peroxidation, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and inflammasome activation in hyperlipidemia, and the underlying protective mechanism, remain under investigation.

Evidence strength: Lipid-modulating effects are established in cell and animal models only. No human clinical data are available for this indication.

4.8 Antitumor Activity

Pharmacological activities of THP include anti-addiction, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, neuroprotective, and antitumor effects. Research in cell lines has shown proapoptotic and antiproliferative activity, but this research is exclusively preclinical.

Evidence strength: Antitumor evidence is confined to in vitro cell-line studies. No human data exist for oncological applications.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas

Many Corydalis species are rich in alkaloids, with positive effects on the central nervous, digestive, cardiovascular, and pituitary–adrenal cortex systems. Based on the research literature, THP is associated with the following body systems:

Central Nervous System: Sedation, anxiolysis, analgesia, neuroprotection, sleep regulation, and anti-addiction via dopaminergic, GABAergic, and serotonergic mechanisms.
Cardiovascular System: Vasodilation, blood pressure lowering, heart rate reduction, and cardioprotection via eNOS/NO, PI3K/Akt, and dopamine receptor pathways.
Immune and Inflammatory Pathways: Modulation of NF-κB, MAPK (ERK, p38), and NLRP3 inflammasome signaling; inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α).
Metabolic and Hepatic Systems: Adipogenesis inhibition (AMPK pathway), lipid metabolism regulation (TLR4-NF-κB pathway), and hepatoprotection in ischemia-reperfusion models.
Oncology (preclinical only): Apoptosis induction and antiproliferative effects in cancer cell lines.

6. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

The following dosages are reported in peer-reviewed sources and official documents and are presented descriptively, not prescriptively:

According to the Chinese pharmacopeia and drug labels, the recommended therapeutic dosage range is 60–120 mg.
A clinical trial administered l-THP at 60 mg twice daily (b.i.d.) to heroin-dependent inpatients over a period of one month.
In a preclinical (mouse) hepatic ischemia-reperfusion study, the doses used were 20 mg/kg and 40 mg/kg. (These are animal doses and are not translatable directly to human dosages.)
Adverse effects, specifically drowsiness, were reported in 77% of subjects at doses above 90 mg.

Available commercial dosage forms include oral tablets and capsules of the hydrochloride and sulfate salt forms, as well as standardized plant extracts standardized to THP content. The pharmaceutical industry has synthetically produced the more potent levo-enantiomer, which has been marketed worldwide under different brand names.

7. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

7.1 Established Adverse Effects

Documented adverse effects in the Chinese pharmacopeia context include drowsiness (affecting 77% of subjects at doses above 90 mg), dizziness, and nausea (rare). Overdose has caused respiratory inhibition and extrapyramidal symptoms.

L-tetrahydropalmatine leads to cardiac side effects such as reducing blood pressure and slowing heart rate. It can also cause hepatotoxicity such as elevated transaminases. Moreover, great individual differences in the effects of l-tetrahydropalmatine cause unpredictability of safety and efficacy.

7.2 Hepatotoxicity

Among its adverse effects is the induction of central nervous system and respiratory depression and cardiovascular collapse. It has also been reported to provoke acute and chronic hepatitis. Patients presenting with hepatotoxicity showed jaundice, fever, fatigue, nausea, pruritus, and abdominal pain together with marked increases in aminotransferase levels, and physical examination revealed hepatomegaly. Liver biopsy in affected patients showed features of acute hepatitis with numerous eosinophils and mild hepatitis in another case.

Although hepatotoxicity has been associated with L-THP and L-THP-containing supplements, a short-term 3.5-day pharmacokinetic/safety study showed no difference in liver transaminase levels between participants receiving L-THP and those receiving placebo. However, the possibility of hepatotoxicity from L-THP administration longer than 3.5 days — as would be the case for substance-use disorder treatment — cannot be ruled out.

A liver toxicity study in mice revealed that THP suppressed the expression of CYP1A2, and no obvious pathological changes were observed in liver tissues after THP administration. Despite this, THP may have potential cardiac and neurological toxicity, but toxicity studies of THP are limited, especially its long-duration and acute toxicity tests.

Concerns about liver toxicity and sedation associated with the use of some l-THP-containing herbal preparations in the US are likely due to poor quality and improper use of these unregulated products.

7.3 Cardiac Safety

Studies have recommended using THP or corydalis with caution in patients with heart diseases because of its potential cardiac and neurotoxic effects. In the short-term 3.5-day placebo-controlled safety study in cocaine users, there was an expected increase in blood pressure and heart rate following cocaine administration that was not influenced by L-THP, and L-THP did not affect the QTc interval.

7.4 Pregnancy

Corydalis should not be taken by pregnant or nursing women.

7.5 CYP450 Interactions

THP suppressed the expression of CYP1A2 in mouse liver studies. This finding raises the theoretical possibility of drug–drug interactions with medications primarily metabolized by CYP1A2, but formal human interaction studies are not yet available in the published peer-reviewed literature.

7.6 CNS Depressant Interactions

Given l-THP's established mechanisms as a dopamine receptor antagonist and positive allosteric modulator of GABA-A receptors, additive or synergistic CNS depression is a pharmacologically plausible concern when combined with other central nervous system depressants, including benzodiazepines, opioids, and alcohol. This concern is supported by the documented sedation seen at standard therapeutic doses.

7.7 Regulatory Status

L-THP has been approved and used in China for a number of clinical indications under the drug name Rotundine. L-Tetrahydropalmatine is recorded in the Chinese pharmacopoeia. It does not hold regulatory approval (e.g., FDA approval) as a drug in the United States or EU. It has been marketed in Western countries under different brand names as an alternative to benzodiazepine-class anxiolytics and opioid analgesics, and is sold as a dietary supplement. In this context, it is not subject to pre-market approval for efficacy or safety.

7.8 Overall Evidence Gaps

THP may have potential cardiac and neurological toxicity, but toxicity studies of THP are limited, especially its long-duration and acute toxicity tests. Further research on its potential target, molecular mechanism, toxicity, and oral utilization should be strengthened in the future.

References

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ImpétigoCientífico
Tetrahydropalmatine (THP), the primary analgesic alkaloid from Corydalis yanhusuo, antagonizes dopamine D1/D2 receptors and partially agonizes opioid receptors to produce analgesia. Clinical studies have confirmed its effects in neuralgia, dysmenorrhea, and headache. Animal studies confirm antihyperalgesic activity in chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain models.

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