Vincamina

Vincamine: An Encyclopedic Reference

1. Identity, Nomenclature, and Chemical Characteristics

Botanical and chemical identity. Vincamine is a naturally occurring monoterpenoid indole alkaloid primarily isolated from the leaves of the lesser periwinkle plant (Vinca minor L.), belonging to the Apocynaceae family. The plant is commonly known as lesser periwinkle or creeping myrtle. Vinca minor is a perennial subshrub indigenous to northern Spain, through western France, eastward via central and southern Europe as far as the Caucasus, and has been naturalized in many regions.

Chemical properties. Vincamine has the chemical formula C₂₁H₂₆N₂O₃ and a molecular weight of 354.44 g/mol. It features an eburnan-type structure characterized by an indole ring system and exhibits optical activity with a specific rotation of [α]²³/D +42.8° in pyridine. The compound belongs specifically to the eburnamine subclass of the broader monoterpene indole alkaloid (MIA) family. These compounds have spasmolytic effects similar to those of reserpine, but also have metabolic effects, including, in high doses, inhibition of phosphodiesterase.

Discovery and naming. In 1953, vincamine was discovered in the leaves of V. minor and named by E. Schlittler and A. Furlenmeier working at the University of Basel and CIBA Corp. (Basel, Switzerland). Six years later, J. Z. Čekan, J. Trojánek, and E. S. Zabolotnaja at the Research Institute for Medical Plants (Prague) showed that the alkaloid then called minorine is identical to vincamine. The first stereoselective total synthesis was subsequently achieved: in 1973, C. Szántay, L. Szabó, and G. Kalaus at the Technical University Budapest and the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Budapest) reported the stereoselective total synthesis of (+)-vincamine that began with a tetracyclic enamine.

Content in the plant. Five indole alkaloids, including vincaminorine, vincaminoreine, minovine, minovincine, and vincamine, were isolated from the aerial parts of V. minor. Vincamine was found to be the dominant alkaloid in this plant, with a content of 0.057% of the dried plant mass. Vincamine was the alkaloid found in the highest concentration in Vinca leaves (2.459 ± 0.035 mg/100 g d.w.). Vincamine, a vinca alkaloid found in the leaves of Vinca minor, is the strongest represented constituent and represents about 20–25% of all of the approximately 40 alkaloids found so far.

Other alkaloids in the plant. Historically, over 60 indole alkaloids have been identified in V. minor L., making it a continued subject of interest in biological studies. In addition to the pharmaceutically important MIA vincamine, this plant produces more than 50 indole alkaloids, including less-known interesting molecules such as lochnericine, akuammicine, vincadifformine, minovincinine, and picrinine. In addition to alkaloids, other important natural compounds found in Vinca minor include flavonoids, phenolic acids, carotenoids, and amino acids.

Pharmaceutical derivative. Vinpocetine is a semi-synthetic derivative of the Vinca minor (common periwinkle) plant alkaloid, vincamine. After extensive structural modifications, three derivatives of vincamine have been developed as cerebral vasodilators used to treat brain disorders, based on their beneficial properties on brain circulation and neuronal homeostasis. These include (+)-brovincamine (11-bromovincamine or sabromine), (–)-eburnamonine (cervoxane, vinburnine, or vincamone), and (+)-vinpocetine (ethyl apovincaminate or Cavinton®).

2. Botanical and Geographic Sources

Vinca minor is native to northern Spain, western France, central and southern Europe, and the Caucasus. The common or lesser periwinkle (Vinca minor) is a flowering plant native to Europe and northwestern Africa. It was introduced in the US as a medicinal herb and ornamental ground cover. It is a perennial evergreen that grows to about 6 inches in height with dark green leaves and small, blue-purple flowers with five petals.

Following HPLC determinations, vincamine shows the highest concentration in leaves. Alkaloids from the aerial parts of V. minor are isolated and purified using different chromatographic methods. The plant has been cultivated for pharmaceutical purposes in countries such as Iran. The quality of herb material and alkaloid concentration is greatly influenced by environmental conditions.

3. Traditional and Historical Use

European folk medicine. In folk medicine, Vinca minor is known for its sedative, hypotensive, antidiabetic effects and also for treating circulatory disorders or promoting cerebral metabolism. In folk medicine, it is used internally for circulatory disorders, cerebral circulatory impairment, and brain metabolism support. Vinca minor has been used in folk medicine for conditions of the heart, nervous system, gastrointestinal system, and menstruation. It is commonly used to improve "brain health" and memory.

Preparatory forms. In the modern herbalist pharmacy, Vinca minor is mainly used as an alcoholic tincture. It can also be used in a lotion for haemorrhoids. Historically, the leaves were steeped in wine and then drunk to staunch bleeding menses, heal wounds, and reduce diarrhoea. A tea made from the plant has been used for nervous conditions. Chewing the herb has been recommended to stop toothache or to stop bleeding in the mouth and nose.

Cultural history. In ancient Roman gardens, periwinkle symbolized immortality and was planted around temples of Venus, goddess of love, due to its evergreen nature and delicate blue blossoms. In medieval Europe, monks and herbalists valued the plant as both a medicinal and symbolic herb—believed to protect against evil spirits and used in love charms and funerary wreaths. Today, the plant is also used in archaeology as a botanical indicator of deserted Roman and medieval settlements, as it has often survived as a relic plant at their locations in the secondary forest over centuries.

Indications in traditional use. The traditional attributions for Vinca minor preparations span a broad range of conditions. The alkaloid with the highest concentration found in Vinca minor leaves is vincamine, which has been used in patients with memory disturbances like Alzheimer's disease and dementia. Vincamine has also been used to treat vertigo and headache. Folklore attributed curative properties to the periwinkle plant, recommending it as a remedy for diarrhoea and haemorrhages.

4. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

The eburnamine-vincamine alkaloid class. Vincamine belongs to the eburnamine-type subclass of monoterpene indole alkaloids. It has been suggested that vincamine derives from vincadifformine, whose synthesis relies on vincadifformine synthases as described in C. roseus. In V. minor, vincamine is highly accumulated, but its biosynthesis remains mostly unknown.

Pharmacologically important co-occurring alkaloids. Alongside vincamine, V. minor yields several other pharmacologically notable compounds. HPLC analysis has shown the presence of four indole alkaloids in hydroalcoholic macerates: vincamine, 1,2-dehydroaspidospermidine, vincaminoreine, and eburnamonine. The indole alkaloids produced by this genus have been widely studied for their diverse biological activities, including anticancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-Alzheimer, and neuroprotective effects.

5. Mechanisms of Action

5.1 Cerebrovascular and Vasodilatory Effects

Vincamine is a natural alkaloid extracted from the Vinca minor plant and has been shown to improve conditions through its vasodilating effect due to its capability to relax smooth muscle cells of the neuronal capillary. This vasodilation leads to an increase in nutrient flow and delivery to the brain, with increased free glucose paralleled by an increase in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production via the Krebs cycle.

Vincamine has modulatory effects on brain circulation and neuronal homeostasis, as well as anti-hypoxic and neuroprotective properties. It is used for the prevention and treatment of cerebrovascular insufficiencies and disorders by increasing cerebral blood flow, oxygen consumption, and glucose utilization.

Vincamine has peripheral circulatory benefits and is used as a cerebral stimulant and vasodilator due to its ability to pass through the blood–brain barrier and modulate brain circulation and neuronal homeostasis.

5.2 Antioxidant Activity and Iron Chelation

Vincamine reduces oxidative stress by decreasing ferric iron (Fe³⁺) concentration in the brain, and its chelating activity of iron ions improves dopamine production and reduces neuronal damage. Vincamine shows protective effects on the brain, heart, liver, lung, kidney, and pancreas, which all result from its potent antioxidant activity. As a result, it exhibits antidiabetic and cerebral vasodilatative activities and was used clinically for the treatment of cerebral insufficiency.

5.3 Phosphodiesterase Inhibition and Additional Targets

Various biological targets have been proposed as putative targets through which vincamine, vinpocetine, and their derivatives elicit their biological effects, including phosphodiesterase 1 (PDE1), Wnt1, and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB).

The use of vincamine for treatment of cerebral pathologic conditions is based on the vasodilating effect at the level of the cerebral network, which permits blood requirements to be better adapted to the metabolic needs of the brain. The action of vincamine is also carried out through a metabolic activity involving an enhanced respiratory activity of the nervous cells, especially when subjected to pathologic conditions.

5.4 NF-κB Inhibition and Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Vincamine exhibits antioxidant activity, potentially by inhibiting the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB). This NF-κB pathway involvement has been independently proposed as one mechanism through which vincamine and its derivative vinpocetine may exert their broader protective effects.

5.5 Anticancer Mechanisms

Vincamine is a naturally occurring indole alkaloid showing antioxidant activity that has been used clinically for the prevention and treatment of cerebrovascular disorders. It has been well documented that antioxidants may contribute to cancer treatment, and vincamine has been investigated recently for its potential antitumor activity. Vincamine was found to show cancer cell cytotoxicity and to modulate several important proteins involved in tumor growth, including acetylcholinesterase (AChE), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and T-box 3 (TBX3).

6. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

6.1 Cerebrovascular Insufficiency and Cerebral Blood Flow

Human clinical evidence. A key early clinical study examined the effects of intravenous vincamine on cerebral blood flow in patients with cerebral ischemia. The alterations in global and regional cerebral blood flow (CBF) following intravenous application of vincamine were studied in 18 patients suffering from acute or subchronic cerebral ischemia. CBF measurements were made after intra-arterial injection of ¹³³Xe using a multi-detector measuring instrument. After a single intravenous application of 30 mg/20 min vincamine, a statistically significant increase of CBF by 1.5 ml/100 g/min was found, corresponding to 6.1% (p < 0.01). The regional CBF was influenced to a varying degree: areas with insufficient blood supply showed a mean increase of 13.4%, while areas with normal baseline values showed a mean increase of 5.3%. This difference in alteration was statistically significant (p < 0.02).

Limitations of this evidence. Although increased cerebral blood flow has been reported after the intravenous administration of vincamine, there have been no reliable studies of blood flow after oral medication. Improvement in scores on some psychometric tests have been obtained in some patients with cerebrovascular disease, but no clear-cut practical benefit has been demonstrated.

6.2 Dementia and Cognitive Impairment

Direct vincamine trial. One randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial specifically examined vincamine in dementia. 152 male and female patients aged between 50 and 85 years from two psychogeriatric centers and two nursing homes were initially included in the trial and screened for eligibility; 142 patients completed the trial. Clinical diagnosis was established according to DSM-III-R criteria. Allocation of patients to the primary degenerative dementia of the Alzheimer type (DAT) group or the multi-infarct dementia (MID) group was based on computed tomography scans, electroencephalographic findings, and the Hachinski Ischemic Score. In a 12-week double-blind treatment, either 30 mg vincamine or placebo was given twice daily. The therapeutic efficacy of vincamine was clearly demonstrated by confirmatory analysis, as the drug was statistically significantly superior to placebo in all four target variables. The clinical relevance of the outcome was further underlined by the results of the responder analysis. Based on the results of this trial, it can be accepted that the therapeutic effect of vincamine is superior to placebo in patients with mild to moderate dementia of degenerative and vascular etiologies.

Cochrane review of the closely related derivative vinpocetine. Since vinpocetine is a direct semi-synthetic derivative of vincamine, evidence for vinpocetine is frequently discussed alongside vincamine in the scientific literature. The Cochrane review of vinpocetine provides the most rigorous synthesis of available data: Preclinical data of uneven quality suggest a potential beneficial effect of vinpocetine in chronic cerebrovascular diseases and on cognitive performance in a variety of animal models. Clinical trials to test these hypotheses were performed before currently used criteria for dementia had become generally accepted. The three studies included totaled 583 patients fulfilling Lauter's criteria for mild or moderate organic psychosyndrome treated with vinpocetine or placebo. The reports of these studies did not permit differentiation of effects on degenerative or vascular dementia. The results show benefit from treatment with vinpocetine 30 mg/day and 60 mg/day compared with placebo, but the number of patients treated for six months or more was small. Only one study extended treatment to one year. The improvement was evident on CGI and SKT scales when trials were pooled across different doses and lengths of treatment.

Overall assessment. Vincamine and vinpocetine have also been recommended for acute stroke, and are still used for this indication in several countries. The evidence in justification of this usage does not meet modern regulatory standards, and bias exists in some of the sources of information. A Cochrane review concluded that there is insufficient evidence to justify the use of vinpocetine for the acute phase of cerebrovascular disease.

6.3 Psychiatric Symptoms in Elderly Patients: Tinnitus, Vertigo, and Psychomotor Disturbances

In a randomized, double-blind study, under the influence of a vincamine formulation, subjective symptoms such as lack of interest, apathy, aggressiveness, psychomotor retardation, lack of concentration, and dysmnesia decreased with statistical significance (p ≤ 0.05). The subjective symptoms reported by the patients, such as tinnitus and vertigo, also decreased significantly under the treatment with the vincamine preparation. Some parameters important for resocialisation and revitalisation of elderly patients could be influenced in a favourable way.

6.4 Antioxidant and Organ-Protective Effects

Vincamine was found to protect human corneal epithelial cells from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation and oxidative stress via activation of thioredoxin reductase. The 2023 review from the Ohio State University College of Pharmacy provides a synthesis of emerging evidence for vincamine as both an antioxidant and a potential anticancer agent. The discovery and development of vincamine as a useful therapeutic agent and its antioxidant and antitumor activity are summarized, with its antioxidant-related mechanisms of anticancer potential being described. Also discussed is the design of potential vincamine-based oncolytic agents, which could contribute to the discovery of new agents for cancer treatment. It must be emphasized, however, that these anticancer findings remain at the preclinical (in vitro and in vivo animal model) stage; no human clinical trials of vincamine for cancer have been published.

6.5 Anticancer Activity: Preclinical Evidence Only

Both vincamine and vinpocetine have demonstrated promising antiproliferative and anticarcinogenic activities, highlighting their broader therapeutic potential. However, this evidence is exclusively preclinical. Vincamine is a naturally occurring indole alkaloid showing antioxidant activity and has been used clinically for the prevention and treatment of cerebrovascular disorders. It has been well documented that antioxidants may contribute to cancer treatment, and thus vincamine has been investigated recently for its potential antitumor activity. No human trials have evaluated vincamine as an anticancer treatment, and the evidence base for this application does not yet support clinical conclusions.

6.6 Parkinson's Disease: Preclinical Basis

Vincamine is a natural alkaloid that has been shown to improve Parkinson's disease through different mechanisms of action, including its vasodilating effect due to its capability to relax smooth muscle cells of the neuronal capillary. Vincamine also reduces oxidative stress by decreasing ferric iron (Fe³⁺) concentration in the brain, and its chelating activity of iron ions improves dopamine production and reduces neuronal damage. This evidence is drawn primarily from preclinical models; human clinical trials in Parkinson's disease patients specifically using vincamine (rather than its derivative vinpocetine) are not established in the peer-reviewed literature at this time.

7. Dosage Forms and Doses Reported in Studies

Oral administration. In the clinical trial of vincamine in dementia described by Fischer et al. (1996, PubMed PMID 8884757), in a 12-week double-blind treatment, either 30 mg vincamine or placebo was given twice daily (i.e., 60 mg/day total). The treatment by vincamine is effected either orally or by the parenteral route; for reasons of local and general tolerability and due to pharmacokinetic causes, the daily dosage must be fractionated into well-defined time intervals (every 8 or 12 hours). The daily dosage is consequently comprised between 60 and 80 mg per os, and between 15 and 45 mg by intramuscular or intravenous route.

Intravenous route. In the human cerebral ischemia study, a single intravenous application of 30 mg over 20 minutes was used, producing a statistically significant increase of CBF of 6.1% (p < 0.01).

Duration for chronic conditions. For oral administration to achieve an efficacious action in cerebral pathologic conditions of the chronic type (arteriosclerosis, post-thrombotic conditions, etc.), a prolonged treatment of about 20 to 30 days is required.

Rat pharmacokinetics (reference data). After oral administration in rats, a bioavailability of 58% was found, and the concentration/time curve showed a two-compartment open model. The following parameters were observed: an elimination half-life of 1.71 hours, a t-max of 1.27 hours, a C-max of 0.87 μg/ml, and a total clearance of 0.818 l/h (higher than the plasma perfusion volume, indicating a very quick metabolism in organs in addition to the liver). The amount of unchanged vincamine excreted was very low: 3 to 11% in urine and 2 to 5% in bile. Note that these are animal pharmacokinetic data and may not translate directly to human subjects.

8. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

• Central nervous system / neurology: Cerebrovascular insufficiency, post-ischemic conditions, age-related cognitive decline, dementia (Alzheimer's type and multi-infarct), subjective memory disturbances, psychomotor retardation.
• Cerebral circulation / cardiovascular: Cerebral blood flow enhancement, vasodilation of cerebral small vessels, reduction of blood viscosity (attributed to vinpocetine and by extension vincamine).
• Sensory systems: Tinnitus, vertigo, sensorineural hearing loss—these were noted as secondary endpoints in the vincamine double-blind study referenced above.
• Antioxidant / hepatoprotective: Based on preclinical and in-vitro data.
• Endocrine / metabolic: In folk medicine, Vinca minor is known for its antidiabetic effects. Preclinical antidiabetic properties have been proposed based on vincamine's antioxidant activity, but clinical evidence in humans is absent.
• Oncology (preclinical only): Antiproliferative and anticarcinogenic activities reported in cell-based studies.

9. Preparations and Commercial Forms

Vincamine is available in several forms, both as an isolated compound and as part of botanical preparations:

• Purified alkaloid tablets and capsules: Oral forms standardized to a fixed dose of vincamine (typically 15–30 mg per unit dose) have been used in the European pharmaceutical market.
• Extended-release oral formulations: Due to the short half-life of vincamine (~1.71 hours in animal studies), sustained-release formulations have been developed and evaluated.
• Intravenous and intramuscular injectables: Used in clinical research and hospital settings in Europe for acute cerebrovascular conditions, at doses of 15–45 mg/day.
• Alcoholic tinctures: In the modern herbalist pharmacy, Vinca minor is mainly used as an alcoholic tincture.
• Whole herb powder: Dried aerial parts of V. minor prepared as a powder, used in traditional preparations including teas.
• Semi-synthetic pharmaceutical derivative (vinpocetine): Vinpocetine is a semi-synthetic derivative of the Vinca minor plant alkaloid vincamine. It has been used for over two decades in certain European countries (Hungary, Germany, and Poland) and Japan to treat cerebrovascular disease states and associated dementia, while also being sold in the United States as a dietary supplement and "nootropic".

10. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

10.1 Antihypertensive Interactions

Theoretically, due to the antihypertensive activity of the constituent vincamine, taking periwinkle may increase the effects of antihypertensive drugs. As vincamine can lower blood pressure, its use should be avoided in individuals with low blood pressure and prior to surgery, as it may interfere with blood pressure control.

10.2 Contraindications

Vinca minor is contraindicated in brain tumours, as it may cause intracranial bleeding and pressure. Due to the astringency of V. minor, it is contraindicated in constipation.

10.3 Adverse Effects Reported for Vincamine and Related Compounds

The safety literature for vincamine specifically is limited; much of the published adverse effect data pertains to its semi-synthetic derivative vinpocetine, which provides the most directly comparable safety reference. The literature reports adverse effects related to the general use of these compounds, including both the oral and intravenous routes. These adverse effects include flushing, transient changes in blood pressure (both hypotension and hypertension), tachycardia, decreased pulse rate, dizziness, feeling of warmth during intravenous administration, cold hands and feet, vomiting, diarrhoea, heartburn, urticaria, and dry mouth, as well as changes in haemoglobin and haematocrit levels or increased γ-glutamate pyruvate transaminase. Furthermore, serious adverse effects reported in some cases included atrial fibrillation, multifocal extrasystoles, epileptiform convulsions, and agranulocytosis (which resolved after proper treatment was given and the compound was discontinued). In these case reports, causality was not always established.

10.4 P-glycoprotein and CYP450 Interactions

Due to increasing use of dietary supplements in combination with conventional drugs, the risk of adverse effects is on the rise. As a preliminary step to predict a possibility of drug interaction during concomitant use of vinpocetine (the vincamine derivative) and conventional drugs, studies have evaluated the effects on cytochromes P450 (CYPs), P-glycoprotein (P-gp), and the Pregnane X receptor (PXR). Strong inhibition of P-gp by vinpocetine is indicative of a possibility of drug interactions by altering the pharmacokinetics of drugs that are substrates of P-gp. However, the effects on CYPs and PXR indicate that vinpocetine may not affect CYP-mediated metabolism of drugs, as the inhibitory concentrations are much greater than the expected plasma concentrations in humans.

10.5 Pregnancy and Lactation

Information regarding safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking. Use during pregnancy or lactation is therefore not supported by available evidence.

10.6 Toxicity of the Crude Plant

Historically, Vinca minor has been used in traditional medicine, though it contains alkaloids like vincamine, which can be toxic if ingested in large quantities. At pharmacological doses, the isolated, purified alkaloid has a generally reported tolerability, but the crude plant should be distinguished from the standardized pharmaceutical extract.

11. Regulatory and Market Status

Vinpocetine (the principal semi-synthetic derivative) has been used for over two decades in certain European countries (Hungary, Germany, and Poland) and Japan to treat cerebrovascular disease states and associated dementia, while also being sold in the United States as a dietary supplement and "nootropic". Vincamine itself has been available as a prescription pharmaceutical in several European countries. In the United States, it is marketed as a dietary supplement and is not subject to pre-market approval by the FDA. It is not approved as a drug by the US FDA. Vinpocetine is used in Japan, Russia, and some European countries to treat cerebrovascular disorders, but it is not approved as a pharmaceutical in the United States.

12. Strength of Evidence: Summary Assessment

The overall evidence base for vincamine can be characterized as follows:

• Cerebral blood flow effects (IV administration): Supported by a small (n=18) human study with significant but modest measured effects. Evidence is limited by sample size, single-route administration, and age of the research.
• Dementia symptoms: Supported by one randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (n=142) over 12 weeks showing statistically significant superiority over placebo on four clinical scales. This represents moderate evidence, constrained by a short trial duration and the fact that it predates modern diagnostic criteria for dementia subtypes.
• Tinnitus and vertigo: Reported as secondary endpoints in a double-blind study; direct evidence for vincamine in this area is limited.
• Anticancer effects: Preclinical only (cell lines and animal models). No human clinical trials.
• Antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic effects: Based on in vitro or animal experiments. Data obtained from clinical studies have indicated the efficacy and safety of vinpocetine as a neuroprotective, nootropic, and anticonvulsant agent. However, most of the clinical studies had only a small sample size and a short duration. Hence, there is a great need for larger and longer studies to confirm the exact status of vincamine and its derivatives.

References

• Alkaloids from the genus Vinca L. (Apocynaceae): a comprehensive biological and structural review — Phytochemistry Reviews, Springer (2025)
• Phytochemical Investigation of Vinca minor Cultivated in Iran — PMC/NCBI
• Vincamine — American Chemical Society, Molecule of the Week
• Determination of Active Ingredients, Mineral Composition and Antioxidant Properties of Hydroalcoholic Macerates of Vinca minor L. — PMC/NCBI (2023)
• Identifying Genes Involved in Alkaloid Biosynthesis in Vinca minor through Transcriptomics and Gene Co-Expression Analysis — PMC/NCBI (2020)
• The Vinca minor genome highlights conserved evolutionary traits in monoterpene indole alkaloid synthesis — PMC/NCBI (2022)
• Vincamine, from an antioxidant and a cerebral vasodilator to its anticancer potential — Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry, PMC/NCBI (2023)
• The influence of vincamine on global and regional cerebral blood flow in acute and subchronic human cerebral ischemia — PubMed
• Therapeutic efficacy of vincamine in dementia — PubMed (1996)
• Demonstrating the effectiveness of cerebroactive drugs in aged patients. Results of a randomized double-blind study of a vincamine-containing special preparation — PubMed
• Vinpocetine for cognitive impairment and dementia — Cochrane/PMC (2021)
• Insufficient evidence of benefits of vinpocetine for people with dementia — Cochrane
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• Vincamine — ScienceDirect Topics (Pharmacology), citing Meyler's Side Effects of Drugs, 2006
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• Lesser Periwinkle (Vinca minor): Benefits, Safety, Uses — Herbal Reality (2026)
• Method and composition for the therapy of cerebral circulatory diseases — US Patent 4,199,585
• The Total Synthesis of Vincamine — Journal of the American Chemical Society
• Vincamine by synthesis and semi-synthesis — Phytochemistry Reviews, Springer (2020)
• Promiscuous and regiospecific Vinca minor hydroxylases for opioid akuammine biosynthesis — ScienceDirect (2025)
• Common periwinkle (Vinca minor) — Poison Control